THE 



I b ) 



Normal Question Book ; 



CONTAINING 



THREE THOUSAND QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS TAKEN FROM THE BEST 
AUTHORITIES ON THE COMMON SCHOOL BRANCHES, ARRANGED IN A 
SYSTEMATICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL ORDER; WITH AN APPENDIX 
OF OUTLINES ON MAP DRAWING, ON INFINITIVES AND PARTI- 
CIPLES AND ANALYSIS IN GRAMMAR, ON PERCENTAGE IN 
ARITHMETIC, ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACH- 
ING, A scale' OF CRITICISM, HINTS AND SUGGES- 
TIONS ON THE PREPARATION OF MSS., RULES 
AND REGULATIONS TO BE OBSERVED 
DURING EXAMINATIONS, Etc. 



PREPAKED EXPRESSLY FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS 
IN REVIEWING FOR EXAMINATIONS; 

ALSO 

ADAPTED TO THE USE OP COMMON SCHOOLS, HIGH SCHOOLS 
AND INSTITUTES, FOR DAILY, WEEKLY AND 
MONTHLY REVIEWS. 



By J. E. SHERRILL, 

Editor and Publisher of the "Normal Teachee.' 



REVISED AIS-D ENLARGED 

1882. 



INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA : 
NORMAL PUBLISHING HOUSE 

J. E. Shereill, Proprietor. 









Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1879, 

By J. E. SHERRILL, 
In the oflBce of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1882, 

By J. E. SHERRILL, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



ELECTROTYPED BY 

KETCHUM & WANAMAKER. 

INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 



PREFACE. 



A NUMBER of question books have been prepared on the com- 
mon school branches, but as a learned educator expresses it, " none 
of them seem to be quite the thing," or, in other words, there is in 
them a want of adaptation of means to end. The chief purpose of 
The Normal Question Book is that of preparing teachers for ex- 
amination, by affording them a hand-book, in the use of which 
they will be directed in the review of the branches in a natural 
and normal manner. The questions are so arranged as to bring 
out the vital and difficult points of each subject, and the answers 
are selected from various excellent and late authorities, with the 
name, page and paragraph of the book from which the answer is 
taken, given in connection with it. Thus, by the use of this book 
in a review, the student is introduced to the latest and best au- 
thorities on the several branches, and in tracing out the answers, 
is led to an investigation and comparison of their merits. In this 
way he forms an acquaintance with a range of reference books, 
such as will be necessary to make him well informed and " up to 
the times " educationally. This independent comparison of au- 
thors is a great point in our normal method of study, and it is 
this which makes our pupils independent of any books, having an 
opinion of their own, or able to cite their authority if their opin- 
ion be called in question. The questions and answers are by no 
means the all important feature of the book. The Appendix of 
Outlines on Map Drawing, Percentage, Infinitives and Participles, 
Analysis in Grammar, Theory and Practice of Teaching, Topic 
Lists, and Hints and Suggestions on various other subjects, such as 
the preparation of manuscripts, and rules and regulations to be ob- 
served during examinations, must prove a mine of treasure to the 

. (3) 



4 PREFACE. 

teacher. If The Normal Question Book does not prove to be 
" quite the thing," we hope it will at least be a suggestive step in 
the line of improvement. But, trusting that it may be valuable — 
that it may be a helpful guide to many who will faithfully fol- 
low its leadings, it is respectfully submitted to the Teaching 
Public. 
Danville, Indlajja, June 1« 1879. 



PREFACE 



REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 



The original plates having been entirely worn out, and the de- 
mand for this book being on the increase, I am compelled to put 
the work out in new shape. I have carefully revised the work, 
adding much new matter, and believe that the book will now be 
found complete in every desirable particular. 

Thirty editions were run from the old plates, and the endorse- 
ments of the many thousands who have bought and used the book 
are sufficient evidence that it has done a good work, and the best 
possible apology for a new, revised edition. 

In the hope that the book may continue to aid teachers in their 
work, it is most respectfully submitted by the 

AUTHOR. 

May, 1882. 



(5) 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 



For the purpose of making due acknowledgment to the au- 
thors and publishers of the several works consulted in the pre- 
paration of this book, and for the benefit of those who may desire 
to purchase and consult any of these several works, we give below 
a complete list of them, together with the names and addresses of 
the publishers : 

Orthography : Harvey's English Grammar ; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. Greene's English 
Grammar ; published by Copperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Clark's 
Normal Grammar; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., 34 and 36 
Madison street, Chicago, and 11 William street. New York, Ham- 
ill's Science of Elocution ; published by Nelson & Phillips, New 
York, and Hitchcock & Walden, Cincinnati. Quackenbos' Eng- 
lish Grammar; published by D. Appleton & Co., 549 and 551 
Broadway, New York. Wolfard's Practical Speller. Holbrook's 
Complete English Grammar; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg 
& Co., Cincinnati and New York. Fewsmith's English Grammar ; 
published by Sower, Potts & Co., Philadelphia. Butler's Practi- 
cal and Critical Grammar ; published by John P. Morton & Co., 
Louisville, Ky. 

Beading : Fertich's Instructive Elocution ; published by the 
author, W. H. Fertich, Muncie, Ind. Hamill's Science of Elocu- 
tion ; published by Nelson & Phillips, New York, and Hitchcock 
& "Walden, Cincinnati. Sander's Rhetorical Reader; published 
by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., Nos. 47 and 49 Greene 
street. New York, and by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 
and S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago. Holbrook's Normal Methods; 
A. S. Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago. Harvey's Graded 
School Fifth Reader; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 

(7) 



8 publisher's notice. 

Cincinnati and New York. McGuffey's Eclectic Fifth Reader; 
published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 
and New York, N. Y. Cole's Institute Reader; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Hol- 
brook's Complete English Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, 
Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Harper's United States 
Sixth Reader; Harper Brothers, publishers, New York. North- 
end's Teacher and Parent ; published by Jenks, Hickling & Swan, 
131 Washington street, Boston. 

Arithmetic : Philosophy of Arithmetic, Written Arithmetic, 
Normal Union Arithmetic, by Edward Brooks, A. M., Ph D.; pub- 
lished by Sower, Potts & Co., Philadelphia. White's Complete* 
and Ray's Third and Higher Arithmetics; published by Van Ant- 
werp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. Quackenbos' Practical and 
Higher Arithmetics; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
The New American Practical Arithmetic ; published by J. H. But- 
ler & Co., Philadelphia. Milne's Practical Arithmetic ; published 
by Jones, Brothers & Co., Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Cliicago and 
Memphis. French's Common School Arithmetic ; published by 
Plarper & Brothers, New York. Thompson's Practical Arithme- 
tic ; published by William H. Moore & Co., Cincinnati. Robin- 
son's Progressive Practical Arithmetic; published by Ivison, 
Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. Hagar's Com- 
mon School Arithmetic ; published by Copperthwait & Co., Phila- 
delphia. Raub's Complete and Elementary Arithmetics; pub- 
lished by Porter & Coates, Philadelphia. 

Grammars : Boltwood's English Grammar, and How to Teach 
It ; published by Geo. Sherwood & Co., Chicago. Holbrook's Com- 
plete English Grammar; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & 
Co., 137 Walnut street, Cincinnati, and 28 Bond street, New York. 
Smith's English Grammar; published by J. H. Butler & Co., 
Philadelphia. Swinton's Progressive English Grammar ; Harper & 
Brothers, Publishers, New York. Lynd's First Book of Etymology ; 
published by E. C. & J. Biddle, 6 South Fifth street, Philadel- 
phia. Quackenbos' English Grammar ; published by D. Apple- 
ton & Co., 549 and 551 Broadway, New York. Bingham's Gram- 
mer of the English Language; published by J. H. Butler & Co., 
Philadelphia. Kerl's Common School Grammar; published by 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 138 and 140 Grand street, New 
York, and 133 and 135 State street, Chicago. Pinneo's Analytical 
Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati 



9 

Harvey's English Grammar; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg 
& Co., 137 Walnut street, Cincinnati, and 28 Bond street, New 
York. . Clark's Normal Grammar; published by A. S. Barnes & 
Co., New York, Chicago and New Orleans. Fewsmith's Element- 
ary Grammar ; published by Sower, Potts & Co., 530 Market 
street and 523 Minor street, Philadelphia. Goold Brown's First 
Lines of English Grammar, and Grammar of Grammars; pub- 
lished by William Wood & Co., 27 Great Jones street, New York. 
English Grammar, Lee & Hadley ; published by Hadley Brothers, 
Chicago. Hart's English Grammar and Analysis ; published by 
Eldredge & Bro., 17 North Seventh street, Philadelphia. Eng- 
lish Grammar and Composition, Reed and Kellogg ; published by 
Clark & Maynard, 5 Barclay street, New York. Butler's Practi- 
cal and Critical Grammar; John P. Morton & Co., Louisville, 
Kentucky. 

History : Taylor's Brief History of the American People ; pub- 
lished by George Sherwood & Co., Chicago. Parley's Common 
School History of the World, by Samuel G. Goodrich ; published 
by J. H. Butler & Co., Philadelphia. Campbell's Concise School 
History of the United States ; published by Brewer & Tileston, 
Boston ; J. W. Scherraerhorn & Co., New York ; Eldredge & Bro., 
Philadelphia. Venable's United States History ; Van Antwerp, 
Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Berard's United States 
History ; published by Copperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Henry's 
School History of the United States ; published by J. E. Sherrill, 
Danville, Ind. Swinton's Condensed U. S. History ; published by 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 138 and 140 Grand street. New 
York; 133 and 135 State street, Chicago. Barnes' Brief History 
of the United States ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York 
and Chicago. Willard's School History of the United States ; pub- 
lished by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago. Ridpath's 
Popular History; published by Nelson & Phillips, New York. 
Wilson's Outlines of History, University Edition ; published by 
Ivison, Blakeman & Co., New York and Chicago. Harper's Smaller 
School History, by David B. Scott ; published by Harper & Broth- 
ers, Franklin Square, New York. Oilman's General History ; 
published by Hurd & Houghton, New York, and The Riverside 
Press, Cambridge. Anderson's Grammar School History; pub- 
lished by Clark & Maynard, New York, and Jansen, McClurg & 
Co., Chicago. Quackenbos' History ; published by D. Appleton & 
Co., 443 and 445 Broadw^f , New York. Kerney's Catechism of 



10 publisher's notice. 

The History of the United States ; published by Kelly & Piet, Bal- 
timore, Md. 

Geography : Swinton's Complete Course in Geography ; pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. 
Eclectic School Geography, by A. Von Steinwehr ; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., New York and Cincinnati. Harper's 
School Geography ; published by Harper & Brothers, New York. 
Mitchell's New School Geography ; published by J. H. Butler & 
Co., Philadelphia. Houston's Physical Geography ; published by 
Eldredge & Brother, No. 17 North Seventh St., Philadelphia. 
Guyot's Physical Geography ; published by Chas. Scribner's Sons, 
743 and 745 Broadway, New York. Our World in a Nutshell ; 
published by the World Publishing House, 139 Eighth street. New 
York. Monteith's Comprehensive Geography; published by A. 
S. Barnes & Co., Chicago. Swinton's Complete Course in Geogra- 
phy ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York 
and Chicago. Warren's Physical Geography ; published by Cop- 
perthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Loomis's Treatise on Astronomy ; 
Harper Brothers, New York. 

Physiology : Brown's Physiology and Hygiene ; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati and New York. Hand 
Book of Health, by J. N. Lougborough ; published by Seventh 
Day Adventist Publishing Association, Battle Creek, Michigan. 
Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology ; published by Ivison, 
Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. Coming's Class 
Book of Physiology ; published by D. Appleton & Co., 549 and 551 
Broadway, New York. Kirk's Hand Book of Physiology; pub- 
lished by Henry C. Lea, Philadelphia. Cutter's Anatomy, Physi- 
ology and Hygiene, by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. 
Dalton's Physiology and Hygiene, and Draper's Physjology ; pub- 
lished by Harper & Brothers, New York. Steele's Fourteen Weeks 
in Physiology ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, Chi- 
cago and New Orleans. Huxley and Youman's Physiology and 
Hygiene ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. First 
Lessons in Physiology ; published by the Central Publishing Com- 
pany, St. Louis. 

Theory and Practice : Page's Theory and Practice of Teach- 
ing, Phelp's Teacher's Hand Book, Holbrook's Normal Methods, 
Holbrook's School Management, Hecker's Scientific Basis of Edu- 
cation, Chadbourne's Lectures, History and Progress of Education, 
Jewell's School Government ; publishid by A. S. Barnes & Co., New 



publisher's notice. 11 

York and Chicago. Wickersham's Methods of Instruction, Wick- 
ersham's School Economy ; published by J. B. Lippincott & Co., 
Philadelphia. Sizer's How to Teach According to Temperament 
and Mental Development; published by S. R. Wells & Co., 737 
Broadway, New York. DeGrafF's School Room Guide; published 
by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, New York. Royce's Deterioration 
and Race Education ; published by Lee & Shepard, Boston, Mass. 
Johonnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching ; published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. Essays on Educational Reformers, 
by R. H. Quick ; published by Robert Clark & Co., Cincinnati, O. 
Northend's Teacher and Parent ; published by Jenks, Hickling & 
Swan, 131 Washington street, Boston. Our National System of 
Education, by John C. Henderson, Jr. ; published by Dodd, Mead 
& Co., 751 Broadway, New York. Combe on the Constitution of 
Man ; published by S. R. Wells & Co., 737 Broadway, New York. 
Education, by Herbert Spencer ; published by D. Appleton & Co., 
Broadway, New York. Pedagogics as a System, by Dr. Karl Rosen- 
kranz ; published by the R. P. Stuckley Company, Printers, cor- 
ner Main and Olive streets, St. Louis, Mo. Emerson's Watts on 
the Improvement of the Mind ; published by Hickling, Swan & 
Brewer, Boston, Ingham & Bragg, Cleveland. Powell on Man ; 
published by Robert Clark & Co., Cincinnati. Sypher's Art of 
Teaching School ; published by J. M. Stoddart & Co., J. A. Ban- 
croft & Co., Chicago and Indianapolis, A. H. Andrews & Co., a 
Western Publishing and School Furnishing Co., St. Louis. The 
School and the School Master, by Alonzo Potter ; pnblished by 
Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square, New York. Ranch's Psy- 
chology; published by M. W. Dodel, New York; Crocker & Brew- 
ster, Boston ; Thomas Copperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. 

Civil. Government: Wayland's Elements of Political Econ- 
omy ; published by Sheldon & Company, 8 Murray street, New 
York. Truman Hastings' Law for the Masses ; published by W. 
F. Schneider, 214-220 Woodland Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. Cham- 
plin's Political Economy; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., Ill 
and 113 William street, cor. John, New York. James N. McElli- 
gott's American Debater; published by Ivison, Blakeraan, Taylor 
& Co., 138 and 140 Grand street, New York, 133 and 135 State 
street, Chicago. The Voter's Text Book, by James M. Hiatt ; pub- 
lished by Asher, Adams & Higgins, Indianapolis, Ind. John S. 
Hart's Brief Exposition of the Constitution of the United States ; 
published by J. H. Butler & Co., Philadelphia. Politics for 



12 

Young Americans, by Charles Nordhoff; published by Harper & 
Brothers, Franklin Square, New York. 

Debating : The American Debater, by James N. McElligott, 
LL. D.; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 138 and 140 
Grand St., New York, and 133 and 135 State St., Chicago. Smith's 
Diagram of Parliamentary Rules, and Key to Diagram, by Uriah 
Smith ; published by Review and Herald Publishing Association, 
Battle Creek, Mich. The Normal Debater, by O. P. Kinsey ; pub- 
lished by O. P. Kinsey, Valparaiso, Ind. 

English AND American Literature: Familiar Talks on Eng- 
lish Literature, Abby Sage Richardson ; published by Jansen, Mc- 
Clurg & Co., Chicago, 111. Shaw's New History of English and 
American Literature; published by Sheldon & Co., New York. 
Taine's Plistory of English Literature ; published by T. Y. Crowell, 
New York. A Manual of English Literature, and A Manual of 
American Literature, Hart ; published by Eldredge & Bro., Philadel- 
phia, Pa. Appleton's American Cyclopsedia ; published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. 

Penmanship : Spencerian Key to Practical Penmanship ; pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York and Chicago. 
Hand Book of Penmanship ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & 
Co., Cincinnati and New York. 

More extensive works than the above might have been profit- 
ably used in connection with the preparation of this book, but we 
preferred to limit our references to works in immediate use in 
common schools. 

I desire in this connection to acknowledge my indebtedness to 
Mr. Frank F. Prigg for valuable aid in preparing the MS. of the 
revised edition. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE. 

Preface 3 

Publisher's Notice 7 

Questions on Orthography 15 

Answers to Questions on Orthography 18 

Questions on Reading 32 

Answers to Questions on Reading 35 

Questions on Arithmetic 50 

Answers to Questions on Arithmetic /. 58 

Questions on Grammar 89 

Answers to Questions on Grammar 100 

Questions on United States History 142 

Answers to Questions on United States History 158 

Questions on Physiology 209 

Answers to Questions on Physiology 219 

Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching 258 

Answers to Questions on Theory and Practice of Teaching 262 

Questions on Mathematical Geography 280 

Answers to Questions on Mathematical Geography 285 

Questions on Political Geography 298 

Answers to Questions on Political Geography 304 

Questions on Physical Geography 320 

Answers to Questions on Physical Geography 328 

Questions on Civil Government 358 

Answers to Questions on Civil Government 364 

(13) 



14 CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Questions on English Literature ." 378 

Answers to Questions on English Literature 381 

Questions on American Literature 395 

Answers to Questions on American Literature 397 

Questions on Penmanship * 403 l- 

Answers to Questions on Penmanship , 404 

Questions on Parliamentary Rules 408 

Answers to Questions on Parliamentary Eules 411 

APPENDIX. 

Rules to be observed at Examinations 427 

Hints on the Preparation of Manuscripts 430 \ 

Programme 435 

Outline of Percentage 437 1/ 

Cartography 441 

Scale of Criticism 445 

Grammar 449 

Outline on Theory and Practice of Teaching 455 

Topic List for the Study of Geography 459 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 



1. Define Orthography. 

2. What is an elementary sound? 

3. How many elementary sounds in the English 
language, and how are they represented? 

4. Give their classification. 

5. Define vocals, sub-vocals and aspirates, and 
explain the terms correlatives, liquids, coalescents, 
explodents and continuents. 

6. What is a letter? 

7. How are letters divided? 

8. What further division can be made? 

9. Name and define the vowels and consonants. 

10. When are w and y vowels? 

11. How are consonants distinguished? 

12. Kame and define the semi-vowels and mutes. 

13. What do you understand by the liquids? 

14. How do letters difler in the variety of their 
representation ? 

(15) 



16 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

15. Of what uses are silent letters? 

16. When are letters said to be long and when 
short f 

17. How do letters combine to form sounds? 

18. What is the name of a letter? 

19. What is the jpower of a letter? 

20. When two or more letters unite^what do they 
form? 

21. What is sl final letter? 

22. How are vowels united? 

23. Name and define the classes of diphthongs and 
triphthongs. 

24. How are consonants united? 

25. Do vowel and consonant sounds unite? 

26. Define digraph and trigraph, 

27. What is a syllable? 

28. What is the essential part of a syllable? 

29. Of what may a syllable consist? 

30. Give a model for analyzing syllables. 

31. What is a wordf 

32. How are words classified? 

33. What is accent? 

34. What is an accented syllable? 

35. How is accent denoted? 

36. What does a difi'erence of accent sometimes 
serve to do? 

37. What difference is found in the accentuation 
of compound words? 

38. When is the hyphen generally used between 
the parts of a compound word, and when is it com- 
monly omitted ? 

39. What words have an accent? 

40. Which may the accented syllable be? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

41. How many and what kinds of accents are 
there ? 

42. Mention the significant parts of a word. ^ 

43. What is a root? 

44. Define prefix and suffix. 

45. How would you analyze a word according to 
its significant parts ? 

46. What is pronunciation? 

47. What is spelling? 

48. Name and define the kinds of spelling. 

49. Give rules for spelling. 

50. Give a method of orthographic parsing. 



18 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 



1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, let- 
ters, syllables and spelling. 

Harvey's English Grammar, p. 7, art. 8, 

2. An elementary sound is the simplest sound of 
the language. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 14, art. 1. 

3. Forty-one.* These sounds are represented by 
twenty-six letters called the English Alphabet. 

Clark's Normal Grammar, p. 11. 

4. These sounds are divided into thre^. cla^s^^s — 
vocals, sub-vocals and aspirates, 

CHART OF THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS 





LONG VOCAT.S. 


SHORT VOCALS. 


1. 


e, 


as in me, eve. 


9. 


i,J 


IS in ill, it 


2. 


e, 




serge, verge. 


10. 


^, 


« 


ell, let. 


3. 


a, 




aim, ale. 


11. 


6, 


(( 


odd, not 


4. 


a, 




air, care. 


12. 


fi, 


<( 


up, sup. 


5. 


a, 




arm, farm. 


13. 


a, 


(( 


add, sad. 


6. 


6, 




or, for. 


14. 


a. 


« 


ask, task. 


7. 


o, 




oak, no. 


15. 


V, 


(( 


full, pull 


8. 


o, 




ooze, do. 











♦Authorities differ as to the number of elementary sounds. From th« 
works which we have consulted, we find the number given varying from 
forty to forty-four. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

DIPHTHONGS. 

16. 1, as in ice, lie. 18. u, as in mute, tube. 

17. oi, " oil, boil. 19. ou, " out, sound. 

SUB- VOCALS. — Correlatives, 

• 20. b, as in boy, ebb. 

21. d, " did, rod. 

22. g, *' go, rag. 

23. g, " gem, judge. 

24. V, *' veer, valve. 

25. th, " this, breathe. 

26. z, " zone, zeal. 

27. zh, " azure, seizure. 

SUB- VOCALS. — Liquids, 

28. 1, as in lo, will. 

29. r, " row, roar. 

30. m, " moon, home. 

31. n, " no, moon. 

32. ng, " sing, ring. > ^ 

SUB- VOCALS. — Coakscents. 

33. w, as in we, wit. 

34. y, " yet, you. 

ASPIRATES. — Explodents. 

35. p, as in pin, pipe. 

36. t, " till, spot. 

37. k, « kick, neck. 

38. ch, " church, which. 

ASPIRATES. — Continuants, 

39. f, as in fife, stift'. 

40. th, " think, breath. 

41. 8, " see, pass. 

42. sh, " shine, wish. 



20 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

43. h, " he, hat. 

44. wh, " whence, what. 

Science of Elocution. Hamill, pp. ^£, ^3. 

5. The vocals consist of pure tone only. The 
sub-vocals consist of tone united with breath. The 
aspirates consist of pure breath only. Correlatives 
are so called because each pair is formed with the 
•same position of the organs. Liquids are so called 
because they flow readily into other sounds. Coal- 
escents are so called because they unite with the 
sounds of other letters. Explodents are so called 
because they are incapable of prolongation. Con- 
tinuants are so called because they are capable .of 
prolongation. 

Greene's English Grammar, pp. 14, 15 and 16, 

6. A letter is a character that stands for a sound 
of the human voice used in speaking. 

Quackenbhs' s English Grammar., p. 8, 

7. Letters are divided, — 

(a) \w respect to their forms, into capital and 

small letters. 

(b) In respect to the sounds they represent, 

into vowels and consonants. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 18, 

8. The forms of letters may be divided as to 
(a) Varieties into 

j^ 1. Italic. 

2. Roman. 
^- §ld gnglisk 

4 iiatmialA 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 21 

(b) Sizes into 

I. Great Primer. 
2. Columbian. 

3. English. 
4. Pica. 

5. Small Pica. 

6. Long Primer. 

7. Bourgeois. 

8. Brevier. 

9. Minion. 
10. Nonpareil. 

11. Agate. 
12. Pearl. ♦ 

13. Diamond. 

14. BRILLIANT. 

As to sounds, letters are divided into vowels and 
consonants. 

Clark's Normal Gramm,ar, pp. 11, 12, 13, H, 
9. The vowels represent pure vocal sounds. The 
vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

The consonants represent sub-vocal sounds and 
aspirates. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 
1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z. Id., p, U. 

10. W and y sometimes represent vocals, and 
are then vowels. Id., p. H. 

11. Consonants are distinguished, 

f Semi-vowels and Id., p. 14. 

^^~" \ Mutes. 

12. Semi-vowels may represent sounds without 
aid of a vowel. They are f, h, j, 1, m, n, r, s, v, x, 
z, and c and g soft. Mutes (b, d, k, p, q, t, and g 
hard) can not be sounded without the aid of a 
vowel. ^Id.j p. H. 



22 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

13. L, m, n, and r, are called liquids, because the 
sounds represented by them flow readily into simi- 
lar or Other sounds. Id., p. IJ^. 

14. (a) Generally a letter represents a peculiar 
sound. 

(b) Some letters represent more than one 

sound. 

(c) Sometimes different letters represent the 

same sound. 

(d) Sometimes a letter is used that does not 

represent any sound. Id., p. H„ 

15. Silent letters are used — 

(a) To modify the sounds of other letters. 

(b) To denote the origin or definition of the 

word. Id., p. H„ 

16. A letter is said to be long when its sound can 
be protracted at will, as a in say — aye. 

A letter is said to be short when the sound 
represented by it can not be protracted, as a in hat. 

Id,, 'p, 15, 

17. Some letters combine — 

(a) To form one sound. 

(b) To form a combination of sounds. 

Id., 'p. 15, 

18. The name of a letter is the term or appella- 
tion by which it is known. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. IS, 

19. The poiver of a letter is the elementary sound 
which it represents. Id., p. 18. 

20. When two or more letters unite, to represent 
a union of elementary sounds, they form a combina- 
tion of letters. Id., p. 23, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



23 



21. A final letter is one that ends a word. T is 
final in rat. Id., p. S3. 

22. The union of two vowels in one syllable is 
called a diphthong; the union of three vowels in one 
syllable is called a triphthong. Id., pp. SS, 2^. 

23. Dipthongs are divided into two classes, proper 
and improper. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels 
are sounded. 

An improper diphthong is one in which one of 
the vowels is silent. 

Triphthongs are also divided into two classes, 
proper and improper, 

A proper triphthong is one is which the three 
vowels are sounded. 

An mj9roj9er triphthong is one in which one or 
two of the vowels are silent. Id.., pp. SS, '2Jf. 

24. Two or more consonants are said to unite 
when their sounds coalesce. Id. p. 2^, 

25. Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel 
sound. Id., p. 25. 

26. A digraph is a union of two vowels in one 
syllable, in w^hich only one of the vowels is sounded. 
A trigraph is a union of three vowels in one sylla- 
ble, not all of which are sounded. 

Clark's Normal Grammar, p. 15. 

27. A syllable is a sound or combination of 
sounds uttered with a single impulse of the voice. 

Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar, p. 18. 

28. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. . 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 25, 

29. A syllable may consist — 
(a) Of a vowel. 



24 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Ex. — J.-cre, ei-thev. 

(b) Of a vowel with one or more consonants 
prefixed. 

Ex. — ^a-sis, bri-er, phthisis, 

(c) Of a vowel with one or more consonants 
affixed. 

Ex. — lUj elf, iutev-ests, earths. 

(d) Of a vowel with one or more consonants 
both prefixed and affixed. 

Ex. — N-oo-n, tr-n-thy thr-u-sts. 

Id., p. ^5. 

30. MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES. 

An is a syllable consisting of two elements : 

A is the essential element; it is a vowel. (Give 
its sound.) 

iV" is a consonant, and represents a sub-vocal ; 
it is affixed to a, which it modifies. (Give its 
sound.) 

Break is a syllable consisting of three parts: 

Ea is the essential part, — it is a diphthong 
(why?), improper (why?); e is silent, — a only is 
sounded. (Give its sound.) 

Br is a union of two consonants, both repre- 
senting sub-vocals, h and r, which are prefixed to 
ea. (Give their sounds separately, then together.) 

^ is a consonant representing an aspirate, 
and is affixed to ea. (Give its sound.) 

Analyze the following syllables and describe 
each element : — 

Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day^ 
wax, hat, view, sound, aid, meet, suit. Id., p. 26. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 

31. A word is a syllable or a combination of syl- 
lables used as the sign of some idea. 

Butler's Practical and Critical Grammar, p. 18. 

32. I. Words are classified according to the num- 
ber of syllables they contain, as follows: 

(1) A word of one syllable is called a mono- 
syllable. 

Ex. — Boy, pen, tree. 

(2) A word of two syllables is called a dissyl- 
lable. 

Ex. — Na-tvre, faith-ful. 

(3) A word of three syllables is called a trisyl- 
lable. 

Ex. — Nat-u-ral, faith-ful-ness. 

(4) A word of four or more syllables is called 
a polysyllable. 

E X . — un-nat-u-ral, un-faith-ful-n ess. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 28. 

II. Words are divided according to their 
formation into simple, compound, primitive and 
derivative. 

(1) A simple word is one which is not formed 
by uniting two or more words ; as, hand, paper, 
father. 

(2) A compound word is one which is formed 
by the union of two or more simple words; as, 
hand-machine, newspaper. The w^ords forming a 
compound are sometimes connected by the hyphen 
[ - ] ; as, father-in-law. 

(3) A primitive word is one which is not 
formed from any other word in the same language, 
but is in its first or simplest form ; as, sin, wind, 
lady. 



26 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(4) A derivative word is one which is formed 
from a primitive word by some change, or by pre- 
fixing or suffixing another syllable or word ; as, 
sinful^ iDiJidy. FewsmitKs English Grammar^ 'p. 13. 
33- Accent is a stress of voice laid on a certain 
syllable when a word is uttered. 

Quackenbos's English Grammar^ p, 12. 

34. The syllable that receives the stress is said to 
be accented. Id.^f. 12, art IJf, 

35. It may be denoted by a mark called the acute 
accent ['], placed above it to the right; as lent' on^ 
engrave'. Id., p. 12, art. 1^. 

36. A difference of accent sometimes serves to 
distinguish words spelled alike but differing in 
meaning. Thus, Au'gust is the eighth month; 
august' is grave, majestic. Id., p. 12, 

37. In some compounds, there is but one accent; 
as gen'tlemen, praise' worthy. In others, each of the 
words compounded retains its accent ; as, writ'ing- •► 
mas'ter, man'y-col'ored. Id., p. 13, art. 17. 

38. When there are more accents than one, the 
parts of the compound are generally connected 
with a short horizontal line [-], called the hyphen. 
When there is but one accent in the compound, 
the hyphen is commonly omitted. Id., p. 13. 

39. Every word of more than one syllable has 
one of its syllables accented. 

Greene's English Grammar, p. 28, art. 7. 

40. The accented syllable may be either the first, 
the last, or a middle syllable. Id., p. 28, art. 8, 

41. Two. Primary and Secondary. 

Ex. — In"defat'igahle, in" comprehen'sible. 

Id., p. 28, art. 9. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

42. A word in reference to its significant parts 
must contain a root, and may contain a prefix or a 
suffix. Id., p. 28, art. 10. 

43. A root, or radical, is either a word, or that 
part of a word which is modified by a prefix or a 
snflix. 

Ex. — Fair, uu-/air, un-fair-ness. 

Id., p. 29, art. 11. 

44. A prefix is that part of a word which is 
placed before the root to modify its meaning. 

Ex. — i2e-turn, pre-pay, iin-fit. 
A suffix is that part of a word which is placed 
after a root to modify its meaning. 

Ex. — Heart-^e55, child-Aooc?, goo^-ness. 

Id., p. 29, arts. 12, 13. 

45. In analyzing a word according to its signifi- 
cant parts, point out the root, then the prefix or 
the sufiix, and show how it modifies the root. 

Id., p. 29. 

46. Pronunciation is the utterance of the sounds 
of a word, with proper articulation and accent. 

Wolfard^s Practical Speller, p. 11. 

47. Spelling is the act of expressing, in proper 
order, according to established authority, the letters 
or sounds of which a word is composed. 

Id., p. 10. 

48. There are three kinds of spelling; viz: 
Phonic, Oral, and Written. 

Phonic spelling is the expression, in proper 
order of the sounds of which a word is composed. 

Oral (orthographic) spelling is the expression 
by the mouth, in proper order, of the letters of 
which a word is composed. 



28 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Written spelling is the expression, in written 
characters, in proper order, of the letters of which 
a word is composed. Id., pp. 10, 11. 

49. I. GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

1. Write no word unless sure of its orthogra- 
phy and signification. 

2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. 

3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 

II. SPECIAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

1. Words which end with a consonant, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, and- which are accented on 
the last syllable, double the final letter on taking 
an additional syllable beginning with a vowel. 

Remark. — Xand h are never doubled. 

2. Words which end with a consonant, pre- 
ceded by a diphthong, or a diagraph representing a 
vowel sound, and words which are not accented on 
the last syllable, do not double the final letter on 
taking an additional syllable. 

Exceptions. — Many words which are not ac- 
cented on the last syllable, ending with s or I, often 
double the final consonant, contrary to analogy ; 
as, travel, travelling. 

3. Words which end with e generally retain 
it on taking an additional syllable beginning with 
a consonant. 

Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment. 

Remark. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, 
it is sometimes retained and sometimes dropped ; 
as, true, truly. 

4. Words which end with e generally omit it 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 

on taking aa additional syllable beginning with a 
vowel. 

Exceptions, — Words ending with ce or ge re- 
tain e before the terminations able and ous^ to pre- 
serve the soft sound of c and g ; as, peace, peace- 
able; courage, courageous, etc. i)^/e/??^ retains the 
e to distinguish it from dying. 

5. Words which end with ie drop the e and 
change the z into y on taking the syllable iiig. 

6. Words which end with y^ preceded by a 
consonant, change y into i on taking an additional 
syllable. 

Exceptions. — Before ing, y is retained ; as, pity, 
pitying. 

7. The diagraph ei follows c soft ; ie is found af- 
ter the other consonants. Ei begins words; ie is 
found at the end of words. 

Holhrook's English Gram., pp. ^^, ^4,, ^5, arts. 11, 116. 
50. The following method of orthographic pars- 
ing is by far the best method we have ever seen :• 

Words analyzed: Pin and impossibility. 

Pin is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled 
orthographically [naming the letters] p, i, n, and 
phonically [enunciating the sounds] p, 1, n. 

Impossibility is a simple derivative polysylla- 
ble, accented on the fourth and second syllables. 
Possible, the base of the word, is modified by the 
prefix im, signifying not, and the suffix ity, signify- 
ing the state or condition. The word signifies, 
"that which can not be." It is spelled, ortho- 
graphically, i, m, p, o, s, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t, y, and phon- 
ically, i, m, p, o, s, s, 1, b, 1, 1, 1, t, 1. 

I is a vowel, the base of the first syllable, rep- 



30 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

resenting its own short sound i, [enunciate,] which 
is a short, simple vocal. 

M is a consonant, and the consequent of the 
hase of the first syllable, representing its own sound, 
m; [enunciate,] which is a sub-vocal, obstructed 
at the lips by a partial contact of the organs, pro- 
ducing a labial, a continuant, and a nasal. 

P is a consonant and the antecedent of the base 
of the second syllable, representing its own sound, 
p; [enunciate] which is an aspirate, obstructed at 
the lips by a perfect contact of the organs, pro- 
ducing a labial and an abrupt. 

0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, 
representing it own short sound 6; [enunciate,] 
which is a short, simple vocal. 

S is a consonant, and the consequent of the 
base of the second syllable, representing its own 
proper sound, s; [enunciate,] which is an aspirate, 
obstructed at the gums by a partial contact of the 
organs, producing a dental and a continuant. 

1, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, 
repesenting its own short sound, i; [enunciate,] 
which is a short, simple vocal. 

B is a consonant, and the antecedent of the 
base of the fourth syllable, representing its own 
proper sound, b; [enunciate,] which is a sub-vocal, 
obstructed at the lips by a perfect contact of the 
organs, producing a labial and an abrupt. 

I, the base of the fourth syllable, is a vowel, 
representing its own short sound, i; [enunciate,] 
which is a short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the consequent of the 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 31 

base of the fourth syllable, representing its own 
proper sound, 1; [enunciate,] which is a sub- vocal, 
obstructed at the hard pahite by a partial contact 
of the organs, producing a palatal, a pontinuant, 
and a liquid. 

I, the base of the fifth syllable, is a vowel, rep- 
resenting its own short sound, i ; [enunciate,] which 
is a short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. 

T is a consonant, and the antecedent of the 
base of the sixth syllable, representing its own 
proper sound, t; [enunciate,] which is an aspirate, 
obstructed at the teeth or gums by a perfect con- 
tact of the organs, producing a dental and an ab- 
rupt. 

Y, the base of the sixth syllable, is a vowel, 
representing the short sound of i, i; [enunciate,] 
which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. 
Id,, f'p, 26, 29, 30, arts, 119, 121, 



32 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON READING. 



1. Define Reading. 

2. What mental qualifications must a good 
reader possess and employ? 

3. What are the physical requisites for good 
reading? 

4. What, then, does good reading demand? 

5. What objects are to be aimed at in the study 
and teachino^ of reading:? 

6. What is articulation? 

7. How can a good articulation be acquired? 

8. What is phonetic analysis? 

9. What is an elementary sound? 

10. Into what classes are the elementary sounds 
of the English language divided? 

11. Define vocals. 

12. Give some directions for articulating vocal 
sounds. 

13. Give a chart of vocal sounds. 

14. Define subvocals. 

15. Give directions for articulating subvocal 
sounds. 

16. Give a chart of subvocal sounds. 

17. Define aspirates. 

18. Give directions for articulating aspirates. 



BEADING. 33 

19. Give a chart of aspirate sounds. 

20. Give a list of the most common faults in ar- 
ticulation. 

21. Give a good plan for explaining elementary 
sounds to beginners. 

22. How are the divisions of syllables marked? 

23. Give a plan for drilling pupils in articulation ? 

24. What is emphasis? 

25. What is the object of emphasis ? 

26. How is this accomplished? 

27. IS'ame and define the kinds of emphasis? 

28. How are emphatic words printed? 

29. What is accent? 

30. How is the accented syllable designated? 

31. Name and define the kinds of accent. 

32. What are inflections? 

33. Define each. 

34. Give rules for the use of inflections. 

35. What is a series? 

36. What is a commencing series, and what a con- 
chiding series? 

37. What is a circumflex ? 

38. Give an outline of the subject of vocal cul- 
ture. 

39. What is transition ? 

40. What is monotone ? 

41. Define monotony. 

42. What is modulation ? 

43. How is the voice modulated ? 

44. How many degrees of variation in pitch ? 

45. What can you say of quantity ? 



34 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

46. What is the difference between quantity and 
pitch ? 

47. What is quality ? 

48. What is force? 

49. What is the difference between force and 
emphasis ? 

50. What is stress ? ^ 

51. What is cadence? 

52. What is climax? 
• 53. Define grouping. 

54. What is personation? 

55. What are rhetorical pauses? 

56. Name the rhetorical points. 

57 Name and define the other classes of points. 

58. Give rules for the use of capitals. 

59. Give a principle of reading that will admit 
of general application. 



READING. 35 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON READING. 

1. Reading is the interpretation and expression 
of the thou^ts, sentiments, and feelings of an au- 
thor. FerticKs Instructive Elocution, p. 17. 

2. A good reader or speaker must possess and 
employ^ — 

(1) A clear conception. 

(2) A vivid imagination. 

(3) Real sympathy. 

(4) Grood imitation 

(5) Vocal power. 

(6) Artistic skill. 

(7) Good judgment. Id., p. 10, 

3. The requisites of good reading are — 

(1) Distinct articulation. 

(2) Full and free respiration. 

(3) Perfect control of a clear, full, round, mu- 
sical tone of voice. 

(4) Graceful and expressive action. 

(5) Cultivated taste and judgment. 

HamilVs Science of Elocution, p. 19. 

4. Good reading demands, in a special manner, 
attention to the followiiig particulars, viz : 

Articulation, Accent, Emphasis, Inflection, 
Modulation, and Pauses. 

Sander^s Rhetorical Reader, p, 13, 



36 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

5. The objects to be aimed at in the study of 
reading, and of course in teaching it, are — 

(1) The acquisition of general knowledge. 

(2) The acquisition of a love for reading. 

(3) The improvement of the memory, judgmenjb 
and taste. 

(4) Improvement of the social faculties. 

(5) Improvement of the health. 

(6) A graceful carriage and address. 

(7) A preparation for public life.* 

(8) The prevention and correction of impro- 
prieties. 

Bolbrook's Normal Methods, j^P- HS, 34,9, 350. 

6. Articulation is the utterance of the element- 
ary sounds of a language, and of their combinations 
in words. 

Harvey's Graded- School Fifth Reader, p. 10. 

7. To acquire a good articulation, attention must 
be paid to exercises upon elementary sounds and 
their combinations, and to the phonetic analysis of 
syllables and words. Id., -p. 10. 

8. Phonetic analysis is the separation of sylla- 
bles and words into the elementary sounds of which 
they are composed. Id., p. 12. 

9. An elementary sound is a simple, distinct 
sound made by the organs of speech. Id., p. 10. 

10. The elementary sounds of the English lan- 
guage are divided into vocals, subvocals, and aspi- 
rates. Id., p. 10. 

11. Vocals consist of pure tone. A diphthong is 
a union of two vocals, commencing with one and 
ending with the other. Vocals are the prominent 
elements of all words. Id.y p. 10. 



READING. ' 37 

12. (1) Let the mouth be open, and the teeth, 
tongue and palate in their proper position. 

(2) Pronounce one of the words in the chart in 
a forcible, aiSrmative tone, several times in succes- 
sion. 

(3) Drop the subvocal or aspirate sounds which 
precede or follow the vocal, and repeat the vocals 
alone. 

(4) Have the class, at first, repeat the words 
and sounds in concert. 

(5) Have each pupil to articulate them sepa- 
rately. , Id., p. 11, , 

13. CHAKT OF VOCAL SOUNDS. 

LONG SOUNDS. 

A, a, as in ate, late, mate, baker, labor, favor. 

A, S,, as in air, fair, hare, mare, share. 

A, a, as in are, fiir, iirk, dahlia, hiirp, harsh. 

A, a, as in after, branch, pass, plaster. 

A, a, as in all, fall, haul, call, walk. 

E, e, as in eve, we, deep, sere, hear, receive. 

E, e, as in err, erst, ermine, prefer. 

I, i, as in Ire, time, tide, combine, file, write. 

O, as in over, no, told, vote, control, mode. 

00, 00, as in doom, cool, bloom, moon, groom. 
U, u, as in use, unit, music, refuse, involute. 
U, ii, as in urn, <irge, burn, fur. 

U, u, when preceded by r, as in rule, frugal, true. 

SHORT SOUNDS. 

A, a, as in cSit, at, man, ind, natural. 
E, 6, as in flk, rent, dense, w6n, fl6d. 

1, T, as in ink, wit, din, whim, trivial. 
O, 6, as in 6n, dOt, r6b, mOral, resOlve. 
IT, fl, as in us, iigly, bat, miig, husky. 

Oo, 00, as in good, hook, cooper, foot, book. 



30 • THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

Oi, oi, as in oil, coin, choice, quoit. 

Ou, ou, as in bound, proud, out, rouse, cow. 

Id., pp. IJ, 1^.' 

14. A voiced sound modiiied and obstructed by 
the articulatory organs. 

Holbrookes Complete English Gram., p. 8, art. 4^» 

15. (1) Pronounce distinctly and forcibly, several 
times in succession, words in which they occur as 
final elements. 

(2) Drop the other sounds, and repeat the sub- 
vocals alone. 

(3) Repeat the words and elements, at first 
in concert; then separately. Id., p. 12» 

16. CHAKT OF SUBVOCAL SOUNDS. 

SUBVOCALS WITH COERELATIVES. 

B, b, as in ebb, rub, babe, tube, r5be. 

D, d, as in add, bSd, r6d, bud. 

G, g, as in nSg, rig, f6g, b5g, rug. 

J, j, as in judge, nudge, l^ge, griidge. 

V, V, as in rave, give, rove, gl6ve. 

Th, th, as in beneath, breathe, with, thine. 

Z, z, as in raze, size, lose, rose, use. 

Zh, zh, as in measure, ilzure, leisure. 

subvocaIjS with no correlatives. 
N, n, as in man, son, fin, rfin. 
M, m, as in name, home, grim, flume. 
Ng, ng, as in sang, fling wr6ng, riing. 
L, 1, as in fall, mill, roll, giill. 
R, r, as in far, sir, soar, slur. 
K, r, as in rear, drfim, roam, rill. 
W, w, as in wear, woof, wile, wish, will. 
Y, y, as in year, y6s, you, yeoman. 

Id., pp. 12, IS. 

17. Aspirates consist of breath only, modified by 
the vocal organs. Id., p. 13. 



READING. 39 

18. (1) Pronounce, several times in succession, 
words in which aspirate sounds occur as initial or 
iiual elenrients. 

(2) Drop the other sounds, and repeat the as- 
pirates alone. 

(3) Repeat the words and elements, at first, in 
concert, then separately. Id., p. 13. 

19. CHART OF ASPIRATE SOUNDS. 
F, f, as in life, quaff, skiff, sc6ff, ruff. 

H, h, as in hay, hive, hope, humid. 

K, k, as in rake, b66k, rick, muck, r6ck. 

P, p, as in r3,p, lip, h6p, Gp, gallop. 

S, s, as in mass, kiss, lOss, fuss. 

T, t, as in at, flit, mote, lute, submit. 

Sh, sh, as in nlsh, wish, b5sh, mush, shore. 

Ch, ch, as in match, rich, roach, much. 

Th, th, as in thank, I6th, throne, ruth, wroth. 

Wh, wh, as in whale, what, whip, why, whimper. 

Id. J) 13, 

20. (1) Suppression of vocal sounds in unaccented 
syllables. 

(2) Suppression of subvocal and aspirate sounds. 

(3) Incorrect articulation of vocal sounds. 

(4) Omission and addition of syllables. 

(5) Blending the end of one word with the be- 
ginning of the next. Id., pp. 18, 19, 20, 

21. Take, for example, the word map, in which 
there are as many sounds as there are letters. Print 
it on the board : 

MAP. — m-m-m a-a-a p-p-p map. 

After the separate sounds of this word are per- 
fectly understood', select one with a new element in 
it, and exercise pupils on that ; first calling on them 
to say whether it has as many sounds as it has let- 
ters. 



40 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

MAN. — m-iii-m a-a-a n-n-n man. 

Proceed now to illustrate the fact that, owing 
to the poverty of our alphabet and the capricious 
irregularities in our modes of forming words by 
letters, the same letter, a, is used for a variety of 
sounds. 

This may be shown in make, car, fall, etc. Show 
that one device for helping us out has been to at- 
tach a silent vowel letter (as in maA:e=m-a-k) to 
indicate the long sound of a in a large class of 
words. 

MAKE. — m-m-m a-a-a- k-k-k make. 

In the word car we have the sounds of k, a iu 
father and smooth or untrilled r. 

CAK. — k-k-k a-a-a r-r-r car. 

Here it may be illustrated that the presence of 
r should give a slight, but not a too formal, differ- 
ence to our enunciation of such words as alms and 
arms^ balm, and farm. 

In the word thaw there are only two elementary 
sounds, namely, aspirate th and the sound of a in 
fall. Call upon pupils to designate the elementary 
sounds in the following words: Trough (trof), 
enough, physic, child, shine, thin, thine, sleigh, calf, 
autumn, awe, aught, height, freight, prove, prone, laugh, 
sphere. New American Fourth Reader, pp. 6, 7. 

22 By pauses and repetitions. Id., p. 7. 

23. First. Pronounce the vowel e, extending the 
lips as much as possible sidewise, and showing the 
tips of the teeth. 

Second. Pronounce ah, dropping the jaw and 
opening the mouth to its widest extent. 



READING. 41 

Third. Pronounce oo (as in cool) contracting 
the lips. 

Then, the teacher having drawn upon the 
blackboard a triangle with the three sounds indi- 
cated at the angles, let him pass the " pointer," 
around in a circle, touching at the angles, and re- 
quire the pupils to utter the vowels, as he indicates 
them, in rapid succession, continuously^ that is, with- 
out pausing between them. Having gone around 
three or four times in one direction, make a signal 
for the pupils to stop; then taking a fresh breath, 
reverse the exercise. 

E 




Proceed in like manner, taking each of the 
other angles as a starting point. We shall thus 
have repetitions of each of the following : E-ah-oo ; 
e-oo-ah; ah-e-oo ; ah-oo-e; oo-ah-e; oo-e-ah. 

After the above has been practiced for a min- 
ute or two, exercises like the following may be 
taken up immediately. The teacher pronounces 
one word at a time, with the utmost precision, and 
requires the pupils to repeat with an exaggerated 
movement of the lips and jaws. Next, phrases, and 



42 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

finally complete sentences, are uttered, great care 
being taken to give elastic spring and play to the 
muscles of articulation. The one injunction which 
needs to be enforced upon the mumbler is, open the 

MOUTH AND MOVE THE LIPS. 

ARTICULATION OF SINGLE WORDS. 

I . . know . . of . . no . . way . . of . . judging 
. . of . . the . . future . . but . . by . . the . . past. 

ARTICULATION OF PHRASES. 

In every period of life . . the acquisition of 
knowledge . . is one of the most pleasing employ- 
ments . . of the human mind. 

ARTICULATION OF SENTENCES, 

The greater the difficulty, the more glory there 
is in surmounting it ; skillful pilots gain their repu- 
tation from storms and tempests. 

Monroe's Fifth Header, pp. 26, 26, 27. 

24. Emphasis is a special stress of voice upon one 
or more words of a sentence, to give them the 
prominence and importance the author intends. 

Graded School Fifth Header {Harvey), p. 32. 

25. The object of emphasis is to attract particu- 
lar attention to the word or phrase upon which it 
is placed, thus indicating that the idea intended to 
be conveyed depends very much upon that word or 
phrase. Id., p. 32. 

26. This is sometimes accomplished by an unu- 
sual lowering of the voice, even to a whisper; but 
most frequently by an increased stress laid upon 
the word or phrase to be emphasized. Id., p. 32. 



READING. 43 

27. Emphasis is either absolute or relative. 
When the emphasis is independent of any con- 
trast or comparison with other words or ideas, it 
is called absolute emphasis. 

Where there is antithesis, either expressed or 
implied, the emphasis is called relative. 

Id., pp. 32, 33. 

28. Emphatic words are often printed in Italics, 
When, however, diflerent degrees of emphasis are 
to be denoted, the higher degrees are designated 
by the use of capitals, LARGER or smaller, ac- 
cording to the degree of intensity. 

Sander's Rhetorical Reader, p. 22, 

29. Accent is that stress of voice by which one 
syllable of a word is made more prominent than 
others. Id., p. 21. 

30. The accented syllable is designated thus : (') ; 
as, com-mand'-ment. Id., p. 21, 

31. Primary and secondary. The more forcible 
stress of voice, is called the primary accent; and the 
less forcible, the secondary accent. Id., p. 21, 

32. Inflections are slides of the voice upward or 
downward. Of these there are two: the rising in- 
flection Siud falling inflection. 

McGuffey's Eclectic Fifth Reader, p. 13, 

33. The RISING inflection is that in which the 
voice slides upward, and is marked thus (') ; as, 
Did you walk'? (Did you walk?) 

The FALLING INFLECTION is that in which the 
voice slides downward, and is marked thus Q ; as, 
I did not walk\ (I did not walk.) Id., p. 13, 

34. (1) Emphatic words, and words denoting a 



44 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

completion of the sense, generally require the fall- 
ing inflection. 

(2) "Words concluding negations and direct ques- 
tions, or words used by way of direct address, re- 
quire the rising inflection ; but, if repeated emphat- 
ically, the falling inflection is proper. 

(3) Words concluding indirect questions, re- 
quire the falling inflection ; but, if repeated em- 
phatically, the rising inflection is proper. 

(4) Each member of a commencing series gen- 
erally requires the falling inflection, except the last, 
which should have the rising inflection. 

(5) Each member of a concluding series gen- 
erally requires the falling inflection, except the last 
but one, which should have the rising inflection. 

FerticKs Instructive Elocution^ pp. ^i-, ^5, 26, 27, 

35. A series is a succession of particulars in a 
discourse. Id,, p, 26. 

36. A series in the beginning or middle of a sen- 
tence is called a comynencing series. A series which 
concludes a sentence is called a concluding series. 

Id., p. 26. 

37. The circumflex is a union of the two inflec- 
tions on the same word, beginning either with the 
falling and ending with the rising, or with the rising 
and ending with the falling. 

Sander's Ehetorical Reader, p. S4" 



READING. 



45 



38. 



ELEMENTS OF EXPRESSION. 



Quality 



fLow. 
Very low. 
Middle. 



High. 



Very high. 
Transitions 



force. 



Stress. 



r Pure Tone. 

r Effusive. 
Orotund^ Expulsive, pj^^^^ 

(Explosive. 
Aspirated. 
Guttural. 
Nasal. * 

Oral. 

r Subdued. TLong. 

Moderate. Quantity -<^ Medium. 

Energetic. " (Short. 

T- -if Free. 

/"^P^^^^^^^^i Suppressed. 

r Radical. fSlow. 

Median. \/r^..^v..^v,+ J Moderate. 

TT • u- Movements j^ • i 

Vanishing. | Brisk. 

Compound. (Rapid. 

^Tremor. 

Cole's Institute Reader, p. 113, 

39. Transition is change in the manner of ex- 
pression. FerticKs Instructive Elocution, p. 31. 

40. The monotone is an unvaried tone through- 
out a sentence or discourse. Id., p. 35. 

41. Monotony is a frequent occurrence of the 
same tone or manner, without reference to the 
sense. Id., p. 33. 

42. Modulation implies those variations of the 
voice, heard in reading or speaking, which are 
prompted by the feelings and emotions that the 
subject inspires. Sander's Rhetorical Reader, p. 35. 

43. The voice is modulated in three different 
ways; that is, from high to low tones, and the re- 
verse. 



4b' THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Secondly^ it is varied in quantity, or in loudness 
or volume of sound. 

Thirdly, it is varied in quality, or in the kind 
of sound expressed. ^ Id., p. 35. 

44 Although the voice is capable of as many 
variations in speaking as are marked on the musi- 
cal scale (8), yet for all the purposes of ordinary 
reading, it will be sufficiently exact if we make but 
thyxe degrees of variation, viz., the loio, the middle, 
and the high. Id., p. 36. 

45. Quantity is two-fold ; consisting in Fullness 
or Volume of sound, as soft or loud; and in Time, 
as slow or quick. The former has reference to 
Stress, the latter to Movement. Id., p. 37. 

46. Quantity has reference to loudness or volume 
of sound, and pitch to the elevation or depression of 
a tone. Id., p. 38. 

47. Quality has reference to the kind of sound 
uttered. Id, p. 39. 

48. Force is the degree of energy with which 
sounds are uttered. 

Fertich^s Instructive Elocution, p. 30. 

49. Emphasis differs from force, in the fact that 
the former is relative, while the latter is absolute. 

Id., p. 30. 

50. The manner in which force is applied, in 
reading and speaking, is termed stress. 

Cole^s Institute Reader, p. 125, 

51. Cadence is the dropping of the voice at the 
close of the sentence, which indicates that the sense 
is complete. Hc^milVs Science of Elocution, p. 152. 



READING. 47 

52. Climax is an utterance gradually increasing 
in intensity, and changing in pitch and movement. 

Id., p. 167. 

53. Grouping is that nice modulation and adapta- 
tion of the voice to the sentiment expressed which 
renders the utterance not only more impressive, 
but more pleasing to the ear. Id.^ p. 170. 

54. Personation is the representation of the tones 
and manner of other persons. 

FerticKs Instructive Elocution, p. 34- 

55. In all discourse, printed or written, certain 
characters are used to show something about its 
meaning which can not so conveniently be ex- 
pressed by means of w^ords. These characters are 
called rhetorical points. 

Day's Art of English Composition, p. 808. 

56. The first class of rhetorical points includes, 

(1) The period (.); 

(2) The colon (:) ; 

(3) The semicolon (;) ; 

(4) The comma (,). 

The second class of rhetorical points includes, 

(1) The exclamation point (!); 

(2) The interrogation point (?); 

(3) The dash (— ) ; 

(4) Quotation marks ( " " and * ' ) ; 

(5) Marks of parenthesis ( ) ; 

(6) Brackets [ ]. Id., pp. 308, 3W. 

57. Etymological points are used to indicate 
something in regard to the formation, use, or omis- 
sion of words or parts of words. 

They are, 



48 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(1) The apostrophe ('), used to show the omis- 
sion of a letter or letters ; as, John's. 

(2) The caret (^), to show some omission in a 
manuscript ; as 

come 
" The king is to marshal us.'* 

A 

(3) The diaeresis, to mark the separation of 
contiguous vowels; as, preengage. 

(4) Marks of quantity, to show that the vowel 
is long or short, as major. 

(5) Marks of accent, to mark either the ac- 
centuation of a syllable, or the intonation of the 
voice ; the grave Q, the acute ('), and the circum- 
flex (a) ; as, bitu'men, insist\ gold. 

(6) The hyphen, used, 1. To separate syllables; 
as al-ge-bra; 2. To unite the parts of a compound 
word. 

(7) The period, to show the abbreviation of a 
word ; as, lat. for latitude. 

Points for reference are used to refer the reader 
to some other place in the page or the book. They 
are the following, which are generally used in the 
order given, and may be doubled if necessary: 

The asterisk (*) ; 

The obelisk or dagger (f) ; 

The double obelisk (J) ; 

The section (§) ; 

Parallels (||), and 

The paragraph {%). Id., pp, 326, 827, 

58. Capital letters are used: 

(1) To begin the first word of a sentence. 

(2) To begin all proper names. 



READING. 49 

(3) To begin all titles of honor. 

(4) To begin the first word of every line of 
poetry. 

(5) To begin the names of objects personified. 

(6) In writing the pronoun I, and interjec- 
tion O. 

(7) To begin appellations of the Deity. 

(8) To begin the names of the days of the 
week, and of the months. 

(9) To begin direct quotations. 

(10) To begin words derived from proper names. 

(11) To begin the chief words in the titles of 
books, headings of divisions of books, chapters, dis- 
courses, etc. 

(12) To begin words of special importance. 

Holbrookes Grammar^ p. SO. 
59. " Be sure you understand what you read, and 
endeavor to express the sentiments of the author 
as you would express the same if they were your 
own, and you were talking.'' 

Harper's United States Sixth Header, p. ^4" 



60 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 



1. Define Arithmetic as a science and as an art, 

2. Upon what is arithmetic founded, and how 
are its operations carried on ? 

3. What is arithmetical language? How many- 
kinds? 

4. In how many ways may numhers be written ? 

5. In the Arabic s^^stera of notation, numbers 
are expressed according to what principle ? 

6. Why is the Arabic system of notation also 
called the decimal system? 

7. What is the scale of a system of notation? 
What is the radix of the scale? 

8. Upon what is the Arabic system of notation 
based ? 

9. How are numbers represented in the Roman 
notation ? 

10. What is the effect of placing a bar over a 
letter ? 

11. What is the fundamental synthetic process 
of arithmetic? 

12. Give the principles of addition. 

13. How many and what are the cases in addi- 
tion? 

14. Why do we write the numbers, as suggested 



AKITHMETIC. 51 

by the arithmetics, and why do we begin at the 
right hand to add? 

15. What is the fundamental analytical process 
of arithmetic? 

16. Give the principles of subtraction. 

17. Name and define the cases in subtraction. 

18. In how many ways may we obtain the ele- 
mentary differences in subtraction ? 

19. ITame the principles of multiplication. 

20. Why are the multiplicand and multiplier 
taken together called factors? 

21. What is division ? 

22. What are the tei^ms of division? 

23. Upon what does the quotient depend? 

24. Show how the value of the quotient depends 
on the relation of dividend and divisor. 

25. What principles of division are deduced from 
these relations? 

26. What two theories regarding the quotient, as 
to quality of abstractness or concreteness? 

27. How are numbers classified? 

28. Define these classes of numbers. 

29. What are the factors of a number? 

30. What is a prime factor? 

31. What is factoring? 

3^. What is a divisor or measure of a number? 

33. What is a multiple of a number? 

34. What is a common divisor and a common 
multiple? 

35. Define greatest common divisor and least 
common multiple. 

36. What is a fraction? 



52 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

87. How does the unit of a fraction differ from a 
fractional unit? 

88. What is a common fraction? 

89. How are fractions divided? 

40. Define proper and improper, and simple, com- 
pound and complex fractions. 

41. N"ame and define the terms of a fraction. 

42. Is a fraction a number? 

48. Is a fraction a denominate number? 

44. What is a mixed number? 

45. What is the reciprocal of a number ? 

46. Give an outline of the cases of fractions. 

47. What two methods are there of developing 
fractions? 

48. What is a continued fraction? 

49. What is a decimal fraction? 

50. In what two ways may a decimal fraction be 
expressed ? 

51. What is the first thino^ to be considered in 
the treatment of decimals? 

52. Give rules for reading and writing decimals. 
58. What will the denominator of a decimal al- 
ways be ? 

54. Upon what does the value of a decimal figure 
depend ? 

55. How do decimals increase and decrease? 

56. What is a pure decimal? 

57. What is a mixed decimal? 

58. What is a complex decimal? 

59. From what are the names of decimal orders 
derived? 

60. What is a circulating decimal? 

61. What is a denominate number? 



ARITHMETIC. 53 

62. What is a simple denominate number? 

63. What is a compound denominate number? 

64. What is a standard unit? 

65. Name the quantities of magnitude which 
give rise to denominate numbers. 

66. What is the standard unit of value? 

67. What is the standard unit of weight? 

68. What is the standard unit of leno^th? 

! 69. What is the standard unit of surface? 

70. What is the standard unit of volume? 

71. What is the standard unit of capacity? 

72. What is the standard unit of angles? 

73. What is the standard unit of time? 

74. Define the metric system of measurement. 

75. What is percentage? 

76. What is the difference between rate and rate 
per cent. ? 

77. Name and define the elements involved in 
percentage. 

78. How is per cent, expressed? 

79. Give general rules for computations in per- 
centage. 

80. Give the applications of percentage. 

81. Define profit and loss. 

82. Define commission : brokerage. 

83. Define agent, factor, broker, consignee, and 
consignor. 

84. Define duties. 

85. What is the difference between specific duties 
and ad valorem duties ? 

86. What is a tariff*? 

87. What is insurance? 

88. Name and define the kinds of insurance. 



54 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

89. Define underwriter, policy and premium. 

90. Define a tax. 

91. What is a bond? "What is a coupon? Name 
the three principal classes of United States bonds. 

92. Define interest. 

93. What is the difl:erence between simple and 
compound interest? 

94. What is a note? 

95. Name and define the kinds of notes. 

96. What is a draft? 

97. Define discount and present worth. 

98. What is the diflerence between true discount 
and bank discount? 

99. What is ratio? 

100. What are the terms of the ratio? 

101. In how many and in what ways may the 
ratio of two numbers be expressed? 

102. What is the diflPerence between a simple ra- 
tio and a compound ratio? 

103. What is a proportion? 

104. How is a proportion formed? 

105. What is a continued proportion? 

106. How many antecedents in a proportion? 
How many consequents? 

107. How are ratio and proportion distin- 
guished ? 

108. What is a simple proportion ? 

109. What is a direct proportion ? 

110. What is an inverse proportion? 

111. What is a compound proportion? 

112. Define partnership. 

113. What is the difterence between simple and 
compound partnership? 



ARITHMETIC. 55 

114. What is analysis ? 

115. Define exchange. 

116. What is a bill of exchange? 

117. How many parties to a transaction in ex- 
change? 

118. Name and define these parties. 

119. What is an indorsement? 

120. What is an acceptance? 

121. How is this obligation acknowledged? 

122. What is a bankrupt? 

123. What is the difference between a bankrupt 
and an insolvent? 

124. Define bankruptcy. 

125. Define aliquot parts. 

126. Explain how distance is measured by time. 

127. How do you find the difference in time cor- 
responding to any difference in longitude ? 

128. How do you find the difierence in longitude 
corresponding to any difference in time ? 

129. How do you find the time at one place when 
the time at another place and their difference of 
time are known ? 

130. How do navigators determine their longi- 
tude at sea? 

131. What is alligation ? 

132. What is the difference between alligation 
medial and alligation alternate? 

133. What is an annuity? 

134. ITanie and define the kinds of annuities. 

135. What is involution ? 

136. What is the power of a number ? 

137. What is a perfect power? An imperfect 
power? 



56 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

138. What is the exponent of a power? 

139. Give the principle involved in finding any 
power of a number. 

140. Define evolution. 

141. What is the root of a number? 

142. How are the roots of numbers indicated? 

143. Define square root. Cube root. 

144. What is the difierence between arithmetical 
progression and geometrical progression? 

145. What five things are to be considered in 
arithmetical progression? 

146. What things are to be considered in geo- 
metrical progression? 

147. What is a duodecimal? 

148. For what are duodecimals used ? 

149. What is mensuration? 

150. What is magnitude? 

151. What is the measuring unit of surfaces? 

152. How do you find the area of a parallelo- 
gram, and a square? 

153. How do you find the area of a rhombus? 

154. How do you find the area of a trapezium ? 

155. How do you find the area of a triangle ? 

156. How do you find the area of a triangle when 
the three sides are o^iven ? 

157. How do you find the circumference of a cir- 
cle, when the diameter is given? 

158. How do you find the diameter of a circle, 
when the circumference is given ? 

159. How do you find the area of a circle? 

160. How do you find a mean proportional be- 
tween two numbers? 



ARITHMETIC. 57 

161. How do you find the solidity of bodies whose 
sides are perpendicular to each other? 

162. How do you find the solidity of a prism? 

163. How do you" find the lateral surface of a 
right prism ? 

164. How do you find the solidity of a pyramid 
or cone? 

165. How do you find the lateral or convex sur- 
face of a regular pyramid, or cone ? 

166. How do you find the solidity of a cylinder? 

167. How do you find the convex surface of a 
cylinder? 

168. How do you find the surface of a sphere or 
globe ? 

169. How do you find the solidity of a sphere or 
globe ? 

170. How do you find the side of a square equal 
in area to any given surface ? 



58 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. 



1. Arithmetic, as a science, logically investigates 
and philosophically classifies and arranges the prin- 
ciples and rules of the subject; as an art, it applies 
the principles and rules for computation to the 
practical affairs of life. 

French's Common School, p, 5. 

2. Arithmetic is founded on ITotation, and its 
operations are carried on by means of Addition, 
Subtraction, Multiplication and Division. 

Ray's Higher, p. 11, art. 23, 

3. Arithmetical language is the method of ex- 
pressing numbers. It is of two kinds, oral and 
written. The former is called numeration and the 
latter is called notation. 

Brooks' Normal, Part ^, p. 10, arts, 13, H, 

4. (1) By words, or common language. 

(2) By figures, called the Arabic method. 

(3) By letters, called the Roman method. 
Brooks' Normal Union, Part 2, p. 11, art. 23. 

5. We employ characters to represent the first 
nine numbers, and then use these characters to 
number the groups, the group numbered being in- 
dicated by the position of the character. 

Id., p. 11, art. 25. 



ARITHMETIC. 59 

6. From the Latin, decern, ten. Ten units of a 
lower order make one unit of the next higher 
order. * Id., p, 16, art. 36, 

7. The scale of a system of notation is the law 
of relation between its successive orders of units. 
The number Avhich expresses this law is called the 
radix of the scale. Id., p. 17, art. 38. 

8. Upon the simple but ingenious device of place. 

Id,, p, 17, art. J^O. 

9. By the following seven letters: I. one; V. 
five; X. ten; Jj. fifty ; C. one hundred; M. one thou- 
sand. Every time a letter is repeated its value is 
repeated. Where a letter of less value is placed be- 
fore one of a greater value, the less is taken from 
the greater. If placed after it, the less is added to 
the greater. Rafs Higher, p. 18, art. 38. 

10. A bar ( — ) placed over a letter increases its 
value a thousand times. Thus M denotes one mill- 
ion. Id., p. 19. 

11. Addition. For by it we pass from unity to 
plurality; from the one to the many. This pro- 
cess, which gives rise to numbers, becomes the 
primary operation of arithmetic. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. 207, 

12. I. Only similar numbers can be added. 

II. The sum is a number similar to the num- 
bers added. 

III. The sum is the same in whatever order the 
numbers are added. Id., p. 208, 

13. Two. The first consists in finding the sums of 
numbers independently of the notation used to ex- 
press them. The second consists in finding the 



60 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sum of numbers as expressed in written characters. 
The former deals with small numbers which can be 
united mentally and may be called meyital addition; 
the latter is used with large numbers, and may be 
called written addition. Id.., p. 208, 

14. Merely for convenience. Id, p. 211. 

15. Subtraction. Id., p. 213, 

16. I. Similar numbers only can be subtracted. 
II. The difference is a number similar to the 

minuend and subtrahend. 

III. If the minuend and the subtrahend be 
equally increased or diminished, the remainder will 
be the same. 

IV. The minuend equals the sum of the sub- 
trahend and remainder; the subtrahend equals the 
difference between the minuend and remainder. 

Id. , pp. 21J^, 215, 

17. There are two. 1st. The finding of the differ- 
ence between numbers independently of the nota- 
tion employed to express them. 2d. The finding 
of the dift'erence between large numbers expressed 
in the Arabic system. Id., pp. 216, 217. 

18. Two. First, we may find the difference be- 
tween two numbers by counting off from the large 
number as many units as are contained in the 
smaller number. The other method consists in 
deriving the elementary differences by inference from 
the elementary sums. Id., p. 260. 

19. I. The multiplier is always an abstract num- 
ber. 

II. The product is always similar to the multi- 
plicand. 



ARITHMETIC. 61 

in. The product of two numbers is the same, 
whichever is made the multiplier. 

lY. If the multiplicand be multiplied by all the 
parts of the multiplier, the sum of all the partial 
products will be the true product. 

V. The multiplicand equals the quotient of the 
product divided by the multiplier; the multiplier 
equals the quotient of the product divided by the 
multiplicand. Id., pp. 222, 22S. 

*^0. Because they make the product. 

Bay's Higher, p. 27, 

21. Division is the process of finding the quo- 
tient of two numbers. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. 228, 

22. The terms of division are the dividend, divi- 
sor, and quotient. 

Brook' s Written Arith., p. Jflf., art. 4^. 

23. The quotient depends on both dividend and 
divisor, ' Quackenbos's Practical Arith., p. 63. 

24. If one of these terms is fixed, a chano^e in 
the other changes the quotient. But if both are 
changed, these changes may neutralize each other, 
and the quotient remain the same. 

Id,, p. 63, art. 103. ' 

25. (1) Multiplying the dividend or dividing the 
divisor by any number, multiplies the quotient by 
that number. 

(2) Dividing the dividend or multiplying the 
divisor by any number, divides the quotient by that 
number. 

(3) Multiplying or dividing both dividend and 
divisor by the same number does not change the 
quotient. Brook's Philosophy of Arith, p, 230, 



62 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

26. Ans. I. Several recent writers take the posi- 
tion that a concrete number may be divided by an 
abstract number, because in 4)ractice we thus di- 
vide a concrete number into equal parts. This is a 
subordination of science to practice, which is neither 
philosophical nor necessary. The practical case 
which they thus try to include in the theory of the 
subject, admits of a scientific and simple explana- 
tion, without any modification of the fundamental 
idea of division ; and when thus explained it be- 
comes apparent that the two terms are similar 
numbers. 

The dividend and divisor are always similar 
numbers. The quotient is always an abstract num- 
ber. Brook's Philosophy of AritL, pp. 228, 229, 

Ans. II. The quotient may be either abstract or 
concrete, — 

(a) It will be an abstract number, when the 
dividend and divisor are both abstract, or both con- 
crete numbers. (Ex. 1 and 2.) 

(b) The quotient will be a concrete number, 
when the dividend is a concrete, and the divisor an 
abstract number. (Ex. 3.) 

(c) Either the divisor or the quotient, must al- 
ways be an abstract number. (Ex. 1, 2 and 3.) 

(d) An abstract number can not be divided by 
a concrete number. (Ex. 4.) 



(1) 

15 cents 3 cents. 




(2) 
15 1 3 


5 




5 


(3) 
15 cents | 3. 


15 


(4) 

1 3 cents. 


6 cents. 


Imp 


ossible. 



ARITHMETIC. 



68 



"Writing in the places of numbers words indi- 
cating the kind of numbers used, we have: 

(1) (2) 

C oncrete | Concrete . Abstract | Abstract . 

Abstract. Abstract. 

(3) (4) 

Co ncrete | Abstract. Abstract | Concrete . 

Concrete. " Impossible. 

French's Arith., pp. 54-, 55, 

27. l^umbers may be classified as follows: 

I. As even and odd. 
II. As prime and composite. 

III. As integral and fractional. 

IV. As abstract and concrete. 
Y. As simple and compound. 

VI. As like and unlike. 
Eobinson's Progressive Frac. Arith.^pp. 8^, 85. 

28. An even number is one that can be divided 
by 2 without a remainder. An odd number is one 
that can not be divided by 2 without a remainder. 

Brook's Written Arifk, p. 73. 

A prime number is one that has no factors, and 
therefore has no exact divisor. 

A composite. number is one that may be di- 
vided, and always is the product of two or more 
factors. Raub^s Complete Arith., p. 60. 

An integral number, or integer, expresses whole 
things. Thus, 281 ; 78 boys. 

A fractional number, or fraction, expresses 
equal parts of a thing. Thus, half a dollar ; three- 
fourths of an hour. 

Robinson's Progressive Practical Arith., p, 85, 



64 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

An abstract number is one that is not used in 
connection with any specitied thing. 

A concrete number is one that is used in con- 
nection with some specified thing. 

Milne's Practical Arith., p. 157, 

A simple number is an abstract number, or a 
concrete number having but one denomination ; as, 
three, three feet. 

A compound number consists of two or more 
concrete numbers having different denominations; 
as, three feet, six inches. 

Qiiackeiihos* s Higher Arith., p. 8, 

Like or similar numbers are those which have 
the same unit. Thus, three yards and five yards 
are similar numbers. 

Unlike or dissimilar numbers are those which 
do not have the same unit. Thus, three yards and 
three books are dissimilar numbers. 

Hagar's Common School Arith., p. 7. 

29. The factors of a number are the integers 
which being multiplied together will produce that 
number. /(/., p. 52, 

30. A prime factor of a number is its prime di- 
visor. White's Complete Arith., p. 3 4-. 

31. Factoring is the process of separating a num- 
ber into its factors. Mibies Practical Arith., p. 78: 

32. A divisor or measure of a number is a num- 
ber that will divide it without a remainder. 

Ray's Higher Arith., p. 56. 

33. A multiple of a number is the product ob- 
tained by taking it a certain number of times; 15 
is a multiple of 5, being equal to 5 taken 3 times. 

Id. p, 66. 



ARITHMETIC. 65 

A multiple of a number is any number which 
it will exactly divide. Wliite's Complete Arith.,p. I^l. 

34. A common divisor of two or more numbers, 
is a number which will divide them without a re- 
mainder. Thus 2 is a common divisor of 4, 6, 8, 
12,16. 

A common multiple of two or more numbers, 
is a number which can be divided by each of them 
without a remainder. Thus, 12 is a common mul- 
tiple of 2, 3, 4. 

Thomson's Prac. Arith., pp. 95-97, arts. 92-99, 

35. The greatest common divisor of two or more 
numbers, is the greatest number which will divide 
them without a remainder. Thus, 6 is the greatest 
common divisor of 12, 18, and 24. 

The least common multiple of two or more 
numbers, is the least number which can be divided 
by each of them without a remainder. Thus, 12 
is the least common multiple of 4 and 6, for it is 
the least number which can be exactly divided by 
them. Id., pp. 95-98, arts. 93-101. 

36. A fraction is a number which expresses one 
or more of the equal parts into which a unit is di- 
vided. Hagafs Com. School Arith , p. 73, art. 1^1. 

37. The unit of the fraction is the unit, or whole 
thing, which is considered as divided into parts. 
Thus, the unit of the fraction of a dollar is one 
dollar. 

A fractional unit is one of the equal parts of 
the unit of the fraction. Thus, one-half is the frac- 
tional unit of halves. Id.^ p. 73, arts. lli!2, IJ/B. 

38. A common fraction is one in which the nu- 
5 



66 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

merator and denominator are both expressed by 
figures. Rauh's Complete Arithmetic^ p. 7^, art. 70, 

39. Fractions 'are divided with regard to their 
value^ as compared with the nnit, into proper and 
improper fractions; with regard to their form, into 
simple, compound and complex. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. 4^1. 

40. A proper fraction is one whose numerator is 
less than its denominator; as, j. 

An improper fraction is one whose numerator 
is equal to or greater than its denominator; as, |^, |. 

A simple fraction is one not united with 
another, and both of whose terms are integers; 
as, ^. 

A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction ; 
as, I of 1^. 

A complex fraction is one having a fraction in 
one or both of its terms; as, f of 6, '^^^ 

8 

Rauh's Complete Arith,,p. 72, arts. 71, 72, 73, 74,, 75. 

41. The terms of a fraction are the numerator and 
denominator. The number below the line is called 
the denominator. It shows into how many equal 
parts the whole is divided, and gives name to the 
parts. The number above the line is called the 
numerator. It shows how many of the equal parts 
denoted by the denominator are taken. 

Quackenbos's Higher Aritk., p. 92. 

42. It has been stated by some writers, and 
seems frequently to be the idea of pupils, that a 
fraction is not a number. This, however, is a mis- 
take, as will appear from a slight consideration of 



ARITHMETIC. 67 

the matter. lN"ewton's definition of a number pro- 
vides for the fractional number when the object 
measured is a definite part of the measure; it con- 
sequently appears that the fraction is a number, if 
we accept his definition as correct. The definition, 
*'A fraction is a number of equal parts of unity," 
also makes it clear that a fraction is a number. 
Again, if it is not a number, what kind of a quan- 
tity is it; and why should it be treated in arithme- 
tic, the science of numbers? 

Five inches is certainly a number; hence its 
equivalent, Jive-twelfths of a foot, is also a number. 
Numbers are of two classes, integers and fractions; 
and fractions are numbers, as much so as integers. 
The fractional number, it will be noticed, involves 
two ideas — first, the integral unit; and second, the 
fractional unit. In an integer we have the idea of 
a number of units; in the fraction we have, not 
only an idea of a number of units, but also the re- 
lation of the fractional unit to the integral unit. 
Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p, 4^4- 

43. A fraction is not a denominate number. 

Id., p. 4eS. 

44. A mixed number is an intesrer and a fraction 
united; as, 5 J. 

White's Complete Arithmetic, p. ^5, art. 76. 

45. The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by 
that number. Thus, the reciprocal of 6 is \. 

Rauh's Complete Arith.,p. 72^ art. 77, 



68 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

46. 



w 
O 

o 






1. Reduction . 

2. Addition . . 

3. Subtraction 



Number to a fraction. 
Fraction to a number. 
To higher terms. 
To lower terms. 
Compound to simple. 
Dissimilar to similar. 

Denominators alike. 
Denominators unlike. 

Denominators alike. 
Denominators unlike. 



O 



r 1. Fraction by a number. 

4. Multiplications 2. Number by a fraction. 

( 3. Fraction by a fraction. 



(1. Fraction by a number. 

5. Division . . , . < 2. Number by a fraction. 

( 3. Fraction by a fraction. 

(1. Number to a number. 
2. Fraction to a number. 
3. Number to a fraction. 
4. Fraction to a fraction. 
Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. 4^7. 
47. There are two methods of developing the 
subject of common fractions, which may be distin- 
guished as the Inductive and Deductive methods. 
By the inductive method, we solve each case by 
analysis, and derive the rules, or methods of oper- 
ation, from these analyses, by inference or induc- 
tion. The method is called inductive, because it 
proceeds from the analysis of particular problems 
to a general method which applies to all problems 
of a given class. By the deductive method we first 
establish a few general principles by demonstration, 
and then derive the rules, or methods of operation, 



ARITHMETIC. 69 

from these principles. The method is called de- 
ductive because it proceeds from the general prin- 
ciple to the particular problem. We will illustrate 
the difference of these two methods by a problem 
in compound fractions. Take the question, " What 
is I of I?" The analysis is as follows: J of -|- is 
one of the three equal parts into which ^ may be di- 
vided ; if each 5th is divided into 3 equal parts, f 
or the unit will be divided into 5 times 3, or 15 
equal parts, and each part will be ^; hence ^ of -J- 
is ■^, and ^ of f is 4 times 3^ or ^, and |^ of I- is 2 
times 5^, or ^j. Examining the analysis we see 
that we have multiplied the two denominators to- 
gether and the two numerators together, from 
which we derive the rule for the reduction of com- 
pound fractions. By tlie deductive method we 
would reason as follows: By a principle previously 
demonstrated, J of |^, which is the same as dividing 
f by 3, is ^\ ; and | of f , by another principle, is ■^-^. 

It will be noticed that the deductive method is 
much shorter than the inductive method, because 
while the former explains every point involved, the 
latter makes use of principles previously demon- 
Btrated. Id., pp. 4^8, 4^9, 430. 

48. A continued fraction is a fraction whose num- 
erator is 1, and denominator an integer plus a frac- 
tion whose numerator is also 1 and denominator a 
similar fraction, and so on. 
Thus, ^=J 

+i 

+ i, or thna, J + J+J+f 
Id., p. 434, eh. 4.. 



70 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

49. A decimal fraction is a fraction whose de- 
nominator is not expressed; but is understood to be 
such a power of ten as is indicated by the number 
of figures at the right of the separatrix. 

Criticism — In consulting Ray's Higher Arith- 
metic, I find this definition of a decimal fraction: 

"A decimal fraction is one which derives its 
name from the Latin word decern, meaning ten; 
and is so called because its denominator is always 
1 with cyphers annexed; being either 10 or the 
product of several lO's." 

This definition is worthless, because it includes 
a large class of common fractions. Read Prof. 
Davies, in his University Arithmetic: "A decimal 
fraction is one in which the unit is divided accord- 
ing to the scale of tens.'' 

Remark. — The separatrix is the most impor- 
tant character used in decimals, and no pains should 
be spared to impress this on the minds of pupils. 
Holbrookes Normal Methods, 'pp. 329, 330. 

50. A decimal fraction may be expressed in the 
form of a common fraction, or by means of a deci- 
mal scale. When expressed by the scale, it is dis- 
tinguished from the general meaning of the term 
decimal fraction by calling it a decimal. A deci- 
mal may thus be defined as a decimal fraction ex- 
pressed by the decimal method of notation. Thus, 
3^, -^^, are decimal fractions, but not decimals ; 
while .5, .45, are both decimal fractions and deci- 
mals. Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. 1^55. 

51. In the treatment of decimals, the first thing 



ARITHMETIC. 71 

to be considered is the method of reading and writ- 
ing them, or their numeration and notation. 

Id,, p. i57, 
52. (1) To read a decimal, read it as though it 
were an integer, and add the name of the right 
hand order. 

(2) To write a decimal, write it as an integer, 
and so place the decimal point that the right hand 
figure shall stand in the order denoted by the name 
of the decimal. White' s Complete ArUk,p. 78, art. 118. 

(3) It is seen from the decimal scale, that the 
tens of any number of tenths, the hundreds of any 
number of hundredths, the thousands of any num- 
ber of thousandths, etc., each falls in the order of 
units when the decimal is expressed decimally. 
Thus, 42 tenths, written decimally, is 4.2, the 4 
(tens) falling in units' order; 1265 hundredths, writ- 
ten decimally, is 12.65, the 2 (hundreds) falling in 
units' order; and 425 thousandths, written deci- 
mally is .425 or 0.425, the (thousands) falling in" 
units' order. Hence, the following 

Rule. — To write a decimal, begin at the left 
and write the term corresponding to the name of 
the decimal, in the order of units. 
HenkWs Meih. of Writing Decimals, White's Complete 
Arith., pp. Sll, Sm, art. 476. 

(4) There are two methods of reading deci- 
mals, which may be expressed as follows : 

(a) Begin at the decimal point and read in 
succession the value of each term belonging to the 
decimal, or 

(b) Read the decimal as a whole number, and 
annex the name of the right hand decimal place. 



72 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Methods of writing decimals : 

(a) Fix the decimal point and write each term 
in its proper decimal place. 

(b) Write the numerator as an integer, and 
then place the decimal point so that the right hand 
term shall express the denomination of the decimal. 

(c) Write the numerator as an integer, and 
then begin at the right and numerate backward, 
filling vacant places with ciphers, until we reach 
the required denomination, and to the expression 
thus obtained, prefix the decimal point. Thus, to 
write 475 millionths, we first write 475 ; then be- 
ginning at the 5, we numerate toward the left, saying 
tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten-thousandths 
(writing a cipher), hundred-thousandths (writing a 
cipher), millionths (writing a cipher), and then place 
the decimal point. 

Brook's Philosophy of Arith , jpp. 458, 4-59, sec. 2. c'h. 1, 

53. The denominator of a decimal will always be 
the unit 1, with as many ciphers annexed as are 
equal to the number of figures in the decimal or 
numerator. 

Eohinson's Progressive Practical Arith. , p. 118, 

54. The value of any decimal figure depends 
upon its place from the decimal point. Thus, .3 is 
ten times .03. Id., p. 119. 

55. Decimals increase from right to left, and de- 
crease from left to right, in a tenfold ratio ; and 
therefore may be added, subtracted, multiplied and 
divided the same as whole numbers. Id., p. 119. 

56. A pure decimal consists of a decimal only. 
Thus, .35, which is read 35 hundredths, is a pure 
decimal. Hagafs Common School Arith., p. 103, 



ARITHMETIC. 73 

57. A mixed decimal consists of an integer and 
a decimal. Thus, 15.7, which is read, 15 ones and 
7 tenths, or 15 and 7 tenths, is a mixed decimal. 

Id, J). 103. 

58. A complex decimal consists of a decimal with 
a common fraction annexed. Thus, .005|, which is 
read 5} thousandths, is a complex decimal. 

Id., p. 103, art. 227. 

59. The names of the decimal orders are derived 
from the names of the orders of integers. 

Id., p. 103, art. 228. 

60. A decimal in which one or more figures are 
constantly repeated, is called a circulating decimal. 

Quackenbos's Prac. Arith., p. Hi, art. 19^. 

61. A denominate number is a concrete number 
in w4iich the unit of measure is established by law 
or custom. Thus, 5 yards, 3 feet, 7* pounds, 3 
ounces, are denominate numbers. 

Milne's Prac. Arith., p. 157, art, 23^. 

62. A simple denominate number is a denomi- 
nate number composed of units of the same denom- 
inations. Thus, 5 feet, 9 pounds, 3 miles, are sim- 
ple denominate numbers. Id., p. 157, art. 235. 

63. A compound denominate number is a denom- 
inate number composed of units of two or more 
denominations which are related to each other. 
Thus, 6 feet and 4 inches, 8 hours and 32 minutes, 
are compound denominate numbers. 

Id., p. 157, art. 236. 

64. A standard unit is a unit of measure from 
which the other units of the same kind may be de- 
rived. Id., p. 157, art. 237. 



74 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

65. (1) Value; (2) Weight; (3) Length ; (4) Sur- 
face; (5) Volume; (6) Capacity; (7) Angles; (8) 
Time. Fhilosophy of Arith., Brooks, p Jf,92. 

^^. Money is the measure of the value of things. 
It is of two kinds, coins and paper money. In the 
United States the standard unit is the dollar. In 
English money the standard unit is the pound. 
Brook's Written Arith., pp. 137, 138. 

67. The standard unit of weight is the Troy 
pound. Brook's Philosophy of Arith., p. ^94' 

68. The standard unit of length is the yard. It 
is determined by the length of a pendulum which 
vibrates seconds in a vacuum at the level of the 
sea, in the latitude of London. Id., p. 494- 

69. The standard unit of surface is the square 
yard for ordinary measurement, and the acre for 
land. , Id., p. 494- 

70. The standard unit of volume is the cubie 
yard for ordinary measurement, and the cord for 
wood. ■ Id., p. 4^4' 

71. The standard unit of capacity is the gallon 
for fluids, and the bushel for dry substances. 

Id., p. 494. 

72. The standard unit of angular measure is the 
right angle, or, in practice, one degree of a circle. 

Id., p. 494. 

73. The standard unit of time is the day. This 
is determined by the revolution of the earth upon 
its axis. Id, p. 494. 

74. The metric system is a decimal system of 
weights and measures, having the meter for the 
base or unit. Baub's Complete Arith., p, 315. 



ARITHMETIC. 75 

75. Percentage is the name applied to computa- 
tions in which 100 is the unit or measure. 

/<:/., jf>. 18 4^, art. 153. 

76. The rate is the number of hundredths. The 
rate per cent, is the fraction which denotes liow 
many hundredths are taken. Thus, in 3^, or y|^, 3 
is the rate, and -^^ itself the rate per cent. 

Id,, p. 185. 

77. Problems in percentage involve the following 
elements: 

(1) The base is the number of which the per 
cent, is taken. 

(2) The rate is the number of hundredths 
taken. 

(3) The percentage is the number which is a 
certain number of hundredths of the base. 

(4) The amount is the sum of the base and per- 
centage. 

(5) The difference is the base, less the percent- 
age. Milne s Practical Arith., jj. 209. 

78. Any per cent., being so many huiidredths, 
may be operated with either as a common fraction 
or a decimal; but the decimal form is preferred as 
the easier. 1% is either y^-g- or .01. Any part of 
1% may be expressed decimally by taking the like 
part of .01. Thus, \%=\ of .01=^.0025. Any part 
of 1% that can not be exactly expressed as a deci- 
mal may be written as a common fraction on the 
right of the order of hundredths. Thus, -ij^=.00^. 
The following examples will show how to express 
different rates per cent, decimally : 2%=. 02; 100% 
:=1.00; i%=.005; 7i%-%=.073. 

Quackenba.^' s Higher Arith., p, 23Ii„ 



76 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

79. I. Base and rate given, to find the percentage. 

Multiply the base by the rate. 
II. Base and percentage given, to find the rate. 
Divide the percentage by the base. 

III. Rate and percentage given to find the base. 
Divide the percentage by the rate. 

IV. Base and rate given to find either amount 
or ditierence. 

Multiply the base by 1 plus the rate, for the 
amount ; and by 1 minus the rate, for the difierence. 
V. Amount or difierence and rate given, to 
find the base. 

Divide the amount by 1 plus the rate ; and the 
difference by 1 minus the rate. 

French's Common School AritL, pp. 235, 236. 

80. The rules of percentage are applied in many 
of the most common mercantile transactions — in 
computing interest, discount, commission, taxes, 
insurance, duties, and especially profit and loss. 

Quackenbos's Higher Arith. , p. 2Jp2., art. ^2^. 

81. Profit and loss are the terms used to indicate 
gain or loss in business transactions. 

Rauh's Complete Arith. ^ p. 195. 

82. Commission is an allowance made to an agent 
for selling goods for another. 

The commission allowed to a broker is called 
brokerage. Id., pp. 201, 202, arts. 163, 169. 

83. An agent is one who transacts business for 
another. A factor is an agent who buys and sells 
or transacts mercantile business for another. A 
broker is one who buys and sells stocks, real estate, 
bonds, and the like, for another person. A con- 



ARITHMETIC. 77 

signee is the person to whom goods are sent for 
sale; the sender is called the consignor. 

Id., pp. Wl, W2, arts. 16^^165, 166, 168. 

84. Duties, or customs, are taxes levied on im- 
ported goods, for the support of government and 
protection of home industry. 

Robinson's Progressive Prac. Arith.^'p. 237, art 290. 

85. Specific duties are customs assessed on the 
quantity of goods imported, without reference to 
their value, and ad valorem duties are customs as- 
sessed on the cost of goods in the country from 
which they are imported. 

White's Complete AritL, p. 168, arts. 268, 269. 

86. A list of the rates of duties to be collected is 
called a tariff. Id., p. 168, art. 267. 

87. Insurance is a guaranteed indemity for loss. 

Id., p. 159, art. 24.9. 

88. There are five different kinds of insurance : 
Fire insurance secures against loss or damage by 
fire; marine insurance, against the dangers of nav- 
igation ; accident insurance, against the casualties 
to travelers and others; health insurance secures a 
weekly allowance during sickness; life insurance 
secures a certain sum, on the death of the insured, 
to some party named in the contract. 

Quackenhos's Practical Arith., pp. 256, 257. 

89. The underwriter is the insurer — the person 
or company that takes the risk. The policy is the 
written contract. The premium is the sum paid 
the underwriter for taking the risk. 

Id., p. 257, art. ill. 

90. A tax is a sum assessed on the person, prop- 
erty, or income of an individual, for any public 



78 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

purpose, such as the support of government, the 
maintenance of schools, etc. 

Quackenbos's Higher Arith., p. Sl^, art. 5^6. 

91. The interest-bearing notes issued by nations, 
states, cities, raih'oad companies, and other corpo- 
rations, as a means of borrowing money, are called 
bonds. The coupons attached to bonds are due- 
bills for the interest, which, as the interest becomes 
due, are cut off and presented for payment. 

The several classes of bonds issued by the 
United States Government are called United States 
securities, or government securities, the principal 
of which are known as sixes of 1881, live-twenties, 
and ten -forties. 

White's Complete Arith;,p. Wit-, arts. 330,381. 

92. Interest is the premium paid for the use of 
money. Id., p. 171, art. 278. 

93. Simple interest is interest on the principal 
only. Compound interest is interest on the prin- 
cipal and also on the interest which, at regular in- 
tervals of time, is added to the principal. 

Id., TV' 172-W8, arts. 283-336. 

94. A note, or a promissony note, is a written 
promise to pay a certain sum of money for value 
received. 

Hagar^s Common School Arith.,p. 202, art. ^85. 

95. A time note is one made payable at a speci- 
fied time. A negotiable note is one so made that it 
can be sold or transferred. 

Hagar's Common School Arith., p. 202. 
A bank note is a note payable at a bank. 
Bank bills are also called bank notes. 

French's Common School Arith., p. 271. 



ARITHMETIC. 79 - 

A joint note is a note signed by two or more 
persons who are jointly liable for its pa}ment. A 
joint and several note is a note signed by two or 
more persons who are both jointly and singly liable 
for its payment. White's Complete Arith ,p. 199. 

96. A draft is an order made by one person npon 
another to pay a specified sum to a third person 
named. It is also called a bill of exchange. 

White's Complete Arith., p. 201, art. S26. 

97. Disconnt is a sum deducted for the payment, 
before it becomes due, of a note or other debt not 
drawing interest. 

Present worth, or proceeds, is the face of an 
obligation, minus the discount. 
French's Com, Sch. Arith., pp. 265, 266, arts. 4.70-4,72, 

98. True discount is the difference between the 
present worth and the face of the debt In otber# 
words, it is the interest on the present Avorth for 
the given time. Bank discount is greater than true 
discount, the former being computed on the face of 
the note or amount, the latter on the present worth 
or principal. 

Quackenbos's Practical Arith., pp. 234, ^37. 

99. Ratio is the relation that one quantity bears 
to another of the same kind. It is represented by 
the quotient arising from dividing one by the other. 
The ratio of 8 to 2 is 4. Id., p. 274, (^rt. 444,. 

100. The two numbers compared are called the 
terms of the ratio. 

White's Complete Arith., p. 222, art. 353. 

101. The ratio of two numbers is expressed by 
placing a colon (:) between them; as 5:12. 

A ratio is also expressed in the form of a frac- 



80 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tion, tlie antecedent being made the numerator and 
the consequent the denominator. Thus, 5:12=-^^. 

Id., p. ^2, arts. 355, 356. 

102. A simple ratio is the ratio of two numbers; 
as 5:8, or f :f. A compound ratio is the product 
of two or more simple ratio; as, (5:6) -[-(f: 10). 

Id.,j)p. 222,^3. 

103. Proportion is an expression of equal ratios. 

Ra'ifs Higher Arith., p. 191, art. 24-6. 

104. Placing a double colon (: :) between them, 
forms the proportion 3:5::6:10, read 3 is to 5 as 6 is 
to 10, or the ratio of 3 to 5 is equal to the ratio of 
6 to 10. Id., p. 191, art. 2^6. 

105. A proportion with more than two equal 
ratios is called a continued proportion, as 3 : 5 : : 6 : 
10 : : 9 : 15. Id., p. 191, art. 246. 

106. Since each ratio has an antecedent and con- 
sequent, every proportion has two antecedents and 
two consequents, the 1st and 3d terms being the 
antecedents, and the 2d and 4th the consequents. 

Id., p 191, art. 246. 

107. Ratio is the relation between two numbers 
shown by their quotient; proportion is the relation 
between two ratios shown by their equality. The. 
former has two terms, the latter four. Id., p. 191. 

108. A simple proportion is an equality between 
two simple ratios. Mibie's Practical Arith., p. 308. 

109. A. direct proportion is one in which each 
term increases or diminishes, as the one on which it 
depends increases or diminishes. 

Id., p. 308, art. 492. 

110. An inverse proportion is one in which each 



ARITHMETIC. 81 

term increases as the term upon which it depends 
diminishes, or diminishes as it increases. 

Id.,x>- 309, art i93, 

111. A compound proportion is a proportion in 
which either ratio is compound. 

Id., p. 311, art 4.96. 

112. A partnership is the association of two or 
more individuals for the transaction of business; 
the persons so associated are called partners. 

RauUs Complete Arith. , p. ^64-. 

113. A simple partnership is one in which each 
of the partners has his capital invested for the same 
time. A compound partnership is that in which 
the capital of the partners is employed for different 
periods of time. Id., pp. ^65, 266, 

114. Analysis, in arithmetic, is the process of ar- 
riving at a required result, not b}^ formal rules, but 
by tracing out relations and reasoning from what 
is known to what is unknown. We generally rea- 
son from the given number to 1, and from 1 to the 
required number. 

Quaokenbos's Practieal Arith., p. 281, art. 4,63. 

115. Exchange is a method of remitting money 
from one place to another, or of making payments 
by written orders. 

Robinson's Progressive Prac. Arith. , p. 266, art 338. 

116. A bill of exchange is a written request or or- 
der upon one person to pay a certain sum to an- 
other person, or to his order, at a specified time. 

Id., p. 266, art 339. 

117. There are always three parties, and usually 
four, to a transaction in exchange. 

6 Id., p. 266, art 340. 



82 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

118. The drawer or maker is the person who 
signs the order or bill. The drawee is the person 
to whom the order is addressed. The payee is the 
person to whom the money is ordered to be paid. 
The buyer or remitter is the person who purchases 
the bill. Id., pp. 266, 267, arts. SJ^l-SU- 

119. The indorsement of a bill is the writing 
upon its back, by which the payee relinquishes his 
title, and transfers the* payment to another. 

Id., p. 267, art. 34.5. 

120. The acceptance of a bill is the promise 
which the drawee makes when the bill is presented 
to him to pay it at maturity. Id., p. 267, art. SJfB. 

121. This obligation is usually acknowledged by 
writing the word "Accepted," with his signature 
across the face of the bill. Id., -p. 267, art. 3^6. 

122. A bankrupt is a person who fails in busi- 
ness and has not property enough to pay all his 
debts. White's Complete Arith. , p. 170, art. 272. • 

123. The term bankrupt is strictly applicable 
only to a trader, while the term insolvent applies 
to any person who is unable to pay his debts. 

Id. , p. 170, art. 272. 

124. Bankruptcy is a failure in business, with 
inability to pay all debts. Id., p. 170, art. 273. 

125. Aliquot parts is a useful method of finding 
a product, when one or both of the factors is a 
compound number. 

Ray's Higher Arith., p. 181, art. 233. 

126. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 
860 equal parts, called degrees. Since the sun ap- 
pears to pass from east to west round the earth, or 
through 360°, once in every 24 hours, it will pass 



ARITHMETIC. ' 83 

through 2^ of 360°, or 15° of the distance, in 1 
hour; and V of distance in ^^ of 1 hour, or 4 min- 
utes; and V of distance in -^ of 4 minutes, or 4 
seconds. 

Rohinson^s Progressive Prac. Arith., p. 195. 

127. Divide the difference in longitude, expressed 
in degrees, minutes and seconds, by 15, and the 
respective quotients will be hours, minutes, and 
seconds of time. 

White's Complete Arith. ^ p. 13 ^^ art. Wl. 

128. Multiply the difference in time, expressed 
in hours, minutes, and seconds, by 15, and the re- 
spective products will be degrees, minutes, and sec- 
onds of longitude. Id.^ p. 13^, art. Wl, 

129. When the second place is east of the first, 
add their difference of time; when it is west of the 
first, subtract their difference of time. 

Id. , p. 13^, art. Wl, 

130. Taking with them a chronometer (an accu- 
rate watch) set to mark the time at a given place 
(as Greenwich or Washington), they ascertain by 
observation of the sun with the sextant the time at 
the spot they are in, reduce the difterence of time 
to difference of longitude, and thus find that they 
are so many degrees east or west of the meridian 
of the place for which their chronometer is set. 

Qiiackenbos^s Higher Arith. , p. 225. 

131. Alligation treats of the mixing or combin- 
ing of two or more articles of different values. 

Paiih's Complete Arith., p. 269, art. 289. 

132. Alligation medial is the process of finding 
the average value or quality of the several articles. 
Alligation alternate is the process of determining 



84 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the proportion of the several articles used in form- 
ing a mixture. Id., p. 269, arts, 290, 291, 

133. An annuity is a sum of money which is 
payable at regular periods of time. 

The New American Prac. Arith., p. 280. 

134. A certain annuity is one that continues for 
a fixed period of time. A perpetual annuity, or 
perpetuity, is one that continues forever. A con- 
tingent annuity is one that begins or ends, on the 
occurrence of certain specified future events, as on 
the death of one or more persons. An annuity in 
reversion is one that begins at a specified future 
time, or on the occurrence of a specified future 
event. An annuity in arrears, or forborne, is one 
the payments of which have been allowed to accu- 
mulate, instead of being paid when due. 

Id., p, 280. 

135. Involution is the process of finding a power 
of a number. Hagar's Com. School Arith., p. 262. 

136. A power of a number is the result obtained 
by using it a certain number of times as a factor. 

Id., p. 262, art. 653. 

137. Any number that is the product of equal 
factors is called a perfect power. Any number 
that is not the product of equal factors is called an 
imperfect power. Id., p. 262, art. 656. 

Answer 2. A perfect power is a number whose 
root can be found. An imperfect power is a num- 
ber whose root can not be found exactly. 

Milne's Prac. Arith., pp, 319, 320, arts. 513, 5U. 

138. The exponent of a power is a number placed 
at the right of the root and just above it, to show 
the number of times the root is to be used as a fac- 



ARITHMETICr' 85 

tor. It also denotes the degree of the power. 
Thus, 2^ denotes the second power of 2, or 2x2; 
2''=2X2X2, or the third power of 2. 

The New American Practical Arith. p. W7, 

139. Any power of 1 is 1 , any power of a num- 
oer greater than 1 is greater than the number itself; 
any power of a number less than 1, is less than the 
number itself. Ray's Higher Arith., p. 331, art. 381, 

140. Evolution is the process of linding the roots 
of numbers. 

Common School Arith., Hagar, p. ^64-, art, 665. 

141. The root of a number is one of the equal 
factors of that number. Id. S6i, art. 661, 

142. The roots of numbers are indicated by the 
character, -j/, called the radical sign. If no figure is 
written in the opening of the sign, the square root 
is indicated ; if the figure 3 is place there, as i^, 
the cube root; if 4, the fourth root; and so on. « 

Id., p. 264, <^rt 663, 

143. The square root of a number is one of the 
two equal factors of that number. The cube root 
of a number is one of the three equal factors of that 
Dumber. 

Written Arith., Brooks, p. 269, art 420, 421, 

144. An arithmetical progression is a series of 
terms varying by a common difference. A geo- 
metrical progression is a series of terms varying by 
a common multiplier. 

Id., pp. 258, 261, arts. 387, 395, 

145. In arithmetical progression, ^\^q; things are 
to be considered: the first term, the last term, the 
number of terms, the common difierence, and the 



86 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sum of the series. Three of these being given, the 
other two can be found. 

Qaaekenbos's Higher Arith., p. S93, art. 667, 

146. In geometrical progression, five things are 
to be considered: the first term, the last term, the 
number of terms, the constant multiplier, and the 
sum of the series. Three of these being given, the 
other two can be found. Id., jp, 396, 

147. A duodecimal is a denominate number in 
v^hich twelve units of any denomination make a 
unit of the next higher denomination. 

White's Complete Arith., p. 806, art. 4.62, 

148. Duodecimals are used by artificers in meas- 
uring surfaces and solids. Id., p. 806, art. 4-68. 

149. Mensuration is the art of measuring magni- 
tudes. Thomson's Practical Arith., p. 388, 

150. The term magnitude denotes that which has 
one or more of the three dimensions, length, 
breadth, and thickness. Id., p. 388. 

151. In measuring surfaces, it is customary to 
assume a square as the measuring unit, as a square 
inch, a square foot, a square rod, etc.; that is, a 
square whose side is a linear unit of the same name. 

Id., p. 888, art. 381. 

152. By multiplying the length by the breadth. 

Id., p. 888, 

153. By multiplying the length by the altitude. 

Id., p. 838. 

154. By multiplying half the sum of the parallel 
sides by the altitude. Id., p. 838. 

155. By multiplying the base by half the alti- 
tude. " Id., p. 339, 



ARITHMETIC. 87 

156. From half the sum of the three sides sub- 
tract each side respectively ; then multiply together 
half the sum and the three remainders, and extract 
the square root of the product. 

Id., p. 339, art, 386, 

157. By multiplying the given diameter by 3. 
14159. Id., p. 339, art. 387. 

158. By dividing the given circumference by 
8.14159. Id., p. 339, art. 388. 

159. By multiplying half the circumference by 
half the diameter; or, by multiplying the circum- 
ference by a fourth of the diameter. Id., p. 339, 

160. A mean proportional between two numbers 
is found by multiplying the given numbers together, 
and extracting the square root of the product. 

Id., p, 34,0, art. 391, 

161. By multiplying the length, breadth, and 
thickness together. Id., p. 3Jfi, 

162. By multiplying the area of the base by the 
height. Id., p. 34.1, art. 394, 

163. By multiplying the length by the perimeter 
of the base. Id., p. 341, art. 395. 

164. By multiplying the area of the base by J of 
the altitude. Id., p. 341, art. 396, 

165. By multiplying the perimeter of the base by 
J the slant height. Id., p. 341' 

166. By multiplying the area of the base by the 
height or length. Id., p. 342, art. 4OO. 

167. By multiplying the circumference of the 
base by the height. Id., p. 34^, art. 4OI. 

168. By multiplying the circumference by the 
diameter. Id,, p. 34^, 



88 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

169. By multiplying the surface by i of the di- 
ameter. Id., p. 34s, art. 403. 

170. By extracting the square root of the given 
surface. Id., p. 3^0, art. 390. 



GRAMMAR. 89 



QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR. 



1. Define grammar as an art, as an acquisition, 
as a study. 

2. What is English grammar? 

3. What is the object of studying grammar? 

4. What is kmguage, strictly speaking? 

5. What can you say of the composition of lan- 
guage? 

6. Under what heads is English grammar 
treated of? 

7. Define etymology. 

8. How are words classified? 

9. How are words distinguished? 

10. By what general name are the diff'erent 
classes of words called ? 

11. Why are they called parts of speech ? 

12. Give a simple and yet logical definition of a 
noun. 

I 13. Give a complete classification of the noun. 

14. .Define and illustrate the classes of the com- 
mon noun. 

15. What may be used as nouns? Illustrate. 

16. What is personification? Illustrate. 

17. Give a rule for determining what nouns 
should be considered masculine and what feminine. 

18. When and how are nouns made plural? 



90 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

19. "What can you say of the gender of collective 
nouns? 

20. How are most nouns made plural? 

21. Mention some nouns that are used only in 
tlie plural number; some that are used in the sin- 
gular number only; and some that have the same 
form for either number. 

22. How are most compound words made plural? 

23. How is a name that begins with the title Mr., 
Miss, or Dr. made plural? 

24. What is said of the title Mrs.? 

25. How are letters, figures, marks and signs 
made plural ? 

26. Define case. 

27. Give an outline of case. 

28. Give rules for forming the possessive. 

29. What exception to these rules? 

30. What is the origin of the use of the posses- 
sive sign('s)? 

31. What is enallage as used in grammar? 

32. What is a pronoun? 

33. What does the word pronoun mean? 

34. For what is a pronoun used? 

35. Into how many general classes may pronouns 
be divided? 

36. Define a personal pronoun. 

37. Into what classes are the personal pronouns 
divided? 

38. !N"ame the simple personal pronouns. 

39. Name the compound personal pronouns. 

40. To which of the pronouns is it customary to 
apply gender ? 



GRAMMAR. 91 

41. Why are not the first and second persons 
each made always to represent a difl:erent gender? 

42. What is a relative pronoun ? 

43. What classes have relative pronouns? 

44. Name the simple relative pronouns. 

45. Is *'as" ever used as a relative pronoun? 

46. How are who, which and that used? 

47. What can you say of the declension of rela- 
tive pronouns ? 

48. When is which preferred to that? 

49. When is that preferred to which? 

50. Give the peculiar constructions of the rela- 
tive pronoun what. 

51. When is what used? 

52. What pronoun is used when the antecedent 
is supplied? 

53. Give a general rule for parsing the relative 
pronoun what. 

54. How are compound relatives formed? 

55. Name the compound relatives. 

56. Define an interrogative pronoun. 

57. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 

58. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be? 

59. What is the subsequent of a pronoun? 

60. What is the difterence between the antece- 
dent and the subsequent? 

61. What are the modifications of pronouns? 

62. Define an adjective. 

63. Into how many classes may adjectives be di- 
vided? 

64. What is a descriptive adjective? 

65. What is a definitive adjective? 



92 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

66. Into what other classes may adjectives be di- 
vided ? 

67. Define a common adjective. 

68. Define a proper adjective. 

69. Define a participial adjective. 

70. Define a compound adjective. 

71. Define a numeral adjective. 

72. Name and define the classes into which nu- 
mer^il adjectives are divided. 

73. Define these classes of adjectives. 

74. Define the pronominal adjective. 

75. What modifications have adjectives? 

76. To what adjectives is number applied ? 

77. What is the comparison of an adjective? 

78. Why is this called comparison ? 

79. How many and what are the degrees of com- 
parison? 

80. Define the diminutive degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

81. Define the positive degree. 

82. Define the comparative degree and tell how 
it is formed. 

83. Define the superlative degree and tell how it 
is formed. 

84. What is comparison ascending ? 

85. What is descending comparison ? 

86. What is regular comparison ? 

87. Give examples of irregular comparison. 

88. When are adjectives redundant? 

89. Are all adjectives compared? 

90. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adject- 
ives come together which are placed first and how 
are they compared ? 



GRAMMAR. 93 

91. What is an article ? 

92. What other name is applied to this part of 
speech ? 

93. Which is the definite article and why so 
called ? 

94. Which is the indefinite article and why so 
called ? 

95. When should A be used? 

96. When should An be used? 

97. When is no article used? 

98. Define a verb. 

99. How are verbs classified ? 

100. Define a regular verb. 

101. Define an irregular verb. 

102. Define a defective verb. 

103. Name the defective verbs. 

104. Define a redundant verb. 

105. Give examples of redundant verbs. 

106. Define an impersonal verb. 

107. Define an auxiliary verb. 

108. Why are the auxiliary verbs so called? 

109. Name the auxiliary verbs. 

110. Define a principal verb. 

111. What is a complete verb? 

112. Define a transitive verb. 

113. Define an intransitive verb. 

114. What is an active-transitive verb ? 

115. What is an active-intransitive verb? 

116. What further can be said in reference to 
active-transitive and active-intransitive verbs ? 

117. What stands as an answer to what? or 
whom? of a transitive verb ? 



94 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

118. How would you determine whether a verb 
is transitive or intransitive ? 

119. How many terms implied in a transitive 
verb? 

120. How many terms implied in an intransitive 
verb? 

121. May some verbs be used transitively or in- 
transitively? Give examples. 

122. What is a copulative verb? 

123. What is the principal copula verb? 

124. What is the peculiarity of these copula 
verbs? 

125. How do derivative verbs form their princi- 
pal parts ? 

126. What properties have verbs? 

127. Define voice. 

128. Define the active voice. 

129. Define the passive voice. 

130. What else can be said of voice? 

131. Define mode. 

132. ISTame the classes of modes. 

133. What are the finite modes? 

134. ITame the finite modes. 

135. Define the indicative mode. 

136. Define the subjunctive mode. 

137. What is the difierence between the indica- 
tive and subjunctive modes? 

138. What is the explanation of these differences? 

139. What are the signs of the subjunctive mode ? 

140. Define the imperative mode. 

141. What is always the subject of the impera- 
tive mode ? 

142. Define the potential mode. 



GRAMMAR. 95 

143. Why is the potential mode so called? 

144. What are the infinitive modes? 

145. Name the infinitive modes. 

146. Define the infinitive mode. 

147. The infinitive is usually accompanied by 
what word ? 

148. After what words is the sign omitted? 

149. How many infinitives are there? 

150. What does the present infinitive denote? 

151. Of what does the present infinitive consist? 

152. What does the perfect infinitive represent? 

153. Of what does the perfect infinitive consist? 

154. What constructions have infinitives? 

155. What is a participle ? 

156. How is the participle formed ? 

157. How many participles are there? 

158. What is a simple participle ? 

159. What is a compound participle? 

160. What constructions have participles? 

161. Define tense. 

162. How many and what are the tenses? 

163. Define the present tense. 

164. Define the past tense. 

165. Define the future tense. 

166. Define the present-perfect tense. 

167. Define the past-perfect tense. 

168. Define the future-perfect tense. 

169. By what other names are the tenses desig- 
nated ? 

170. How many tenses has the indicative mood? 

171. How many tenses has the subjunctive mood? 

172. How many tenses has the potential mood? 

173. How many tenses has the infinitive mood? 



96 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

174. How many tenses has the imperative mode? 

175. What are the forms of the verb? 

176. How many forms have transitive verbs ? 

177. Name these forms. 

178. How many forms have intransitive verbs ? 

179. Name the forms of the intransitive verbs. 

180. Define the common form. 

181. Give examples of the common form. 

182. Define the emphatic form. 

183. Give examples of the emphatic form. 

184. In what other way is the emphatic form 
used? 

185. Give examples. 

186. Define the progressive form. 

187. Give examples of the progressive form. 

188. When is the progressive form used? 

189. How is it formed ? 

190. Define the passive form. 

191. Where is the passive form used? 

192. How is it formed ? 

193. Define the ancient form. 

194. What other forms are recognized by some 
grammarians? 

195. How is the interrogative form made? 

196. How is the interrogative form made in the 
present and past tenses? 

197. How is the nes^ative form made? 

198. From what do the compound forms result? 

199. What persons and numbers have verbs? 

200. What is conjugation ? 

201. What is synopsis? 

202. What is the inflection of a verb? 

203. How many conjugations have verbs? 



GRAMMAR. 97 

204. "What verbs are of the weak conjugation? 

205. What verbs are of the strong conjugation? 

206. What is the theme of the verb ? 

207. What is a paradigm ? 

208. What is it to make a verb? 

209. What is it to tell where a verb is made? 

210. Give an example. 

211. What is the root of the verb? 

212. AVhat are the principal parts of a verb? 

213. Why are they so called? 

214. Define an adverb. 

215. How are adverbs classified? 

216. What is a modifying adverb? 

217. What is a conjunctive adverb? 

218. To what is an adverb equivalent? 

219. From what are adverbs derived ? 

220. What general rule can be given in reference 
to the position of the adverb? 

221. What modifications have adverbs ? 

222. Define a preposition. 

223. Into how many classes are prepositions di- 
vided? 

224. Define a simple preposition. 

225. Define a compound preposition. 

226. Define a complex preposition. 
227. *Define a conjunction. 

228. How are conjunctions classified? 

229. How are conjunctions classified as to rank? 

230. What are co-ordinate connectives ? 

231. What are subordinate connectives? 

232. How are conjunctions classified as to signi- 
fication ? 

7 



98 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

233. Define a copulative conjunction. 

234. Define a disjunctive conjunction. 

235. Define an interjection. 

236. Define syntax. 

237. Define a sentence. 

238. What does the expression of a thought in- 
volve ? 

239. What is the subject of a sentence? 

240. What is the predicate of a sentence? 

241. How are sentences classified? 

242. Name the sentences of the first division. 

243. Define a simple sentence. 

244. Define a complex sentence. 

245. Define a compound sentence. 

246. Define a complete sentence. 

247. Define an abridged sentence. 

248. How are sentences classified as to the nature 
of the proposition ? 

249. Define a declarative sentence. 

250. Define an interrogative sentence. 

251. Define an imperative sentence. 

252. Define an exclamatory sentence. 

253. What are the elements of a sentence? 

254. Into what can all sentences be resolved? 

255. What is a proposition ? 

256. How many parts has every propositfon? 

257. Define a clause. 

258. How is a clause always used? 

259. Define a phrase. 

260. What is a modifier? 

261. What is analysis? 

262. Define synthesis. 

263. Define ellipsis. 



GRAMMAR. ^9 

264. What is parsing? 

265. Wliat is prosody? 

266. What is verse ? 

267. How is poetry distinguished from prose? 

268. How many kinds of verse are there? 

269. Define rhyme. 

270. Define blank verse. 

271. What is meant by the quantity of a sylla- 
ble? 

272. What is afoot? 

273. What is a figure ? 

274. ]N"ame the figures of grammar. 

275. What is a figure of orthography? 

276. What is a figure of etymology? 

277. What is a figure of syntax? 

278. What is a figure of rhetoric? 



100 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, 
writing, and speaking correctly. As an acquisi- 
tion, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a 
study, it is the practical science which teaches the 
right use of the language. 

Goold Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 1^5. 

2. English grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language, according to estab- 
lished usage. Finned' s Analytical Gram., p. 7, art. 1. 

3. The object of studying grammar is to be 
able to understand, speak, and write a language 
correctly. Hart's English Gram, and Analysis, p. 9. 

4. Language is any method of communicating 
thought of feeling. 

HolhrooWs Complete English Gram., p. 4, art. 6. 

5. The composition of language is of two kinds, 
prose and verse. 

Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p, IJfS. 

6. English grammar is treated of under four 
heads : Orthography, etymology, syntax, and pros- 
ody. Binned' s Analytical Gram., p. 7, art. 3, 

7. Etymology treats of 

1st. The classification of words. 
2d. The properties of words. 



GRAMMAR. 101 

8d. The derivation of words. 

Id., p. 8, art, 10. 

8. In a discourse, words are (classified) used — 

(1) As names of beings, places, or things; 

(2) As substitutes for names or facts ; 

(3) As qualifiers or limiters of names; 

(4) To assert action, being or condition ; 

(5) To modify an assertion or a quality ; 

(6) To express relations of things or of thoughts; 

(7) To introduce or to connect words and sen- 
tences ; 

(8) To express a sudden or an intense emo- 
tiou, or, 

(9) For rhetorical efiPect. 

Clark's Normal Gram., p. 17. 

9. By the uses — 

Words are distinguished as, 

(1) !N"ouns, (5) Adverbs, 

(2) Pronouns, (6) Prepositions, 

(3) Adjectives, (7) Conjunctions, 

(4) Verbs, (8) Exclamations, and 

(9) Words of euphony. 

Id., p. 17. 

10. The several kinds, or classes of words, are 
called by the general name of parts of speech. 

Pinneo's Analytical Gram., p. 8, art. 11. 

11. The word parts means division, and speech 
means language, so that the expression, parts of 
speech, means division of language. 

Id., p. 9, art. 12. 

12. A noun is a name-word. 

Swinton's Language Primer, p. 8. 



102 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



13-N--{Sron. 



Including: 
Colllective, 
Abstract, 
Verbal, 
Diminutive 
Class. 



Gender 



Person 



'^Masculine, 
Feminine, 
Common, 

^i^euter, 

r First, 
< Second, 
Third. 



Properties 

or 
Modificat'ns 



TVT -u f Si nebular, 
Number. I pj^-^l_ 



Case 



ri^omi native, 



Possessive, 
1 Objective, ' 
(^Independent 

14. A collective noun is a name, singular in form, 
but plural in meaning; as, crowd, company, fleet. 

Holhrook, p. 31, art. 32. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality- 
considered apart from the substance to which it 
belongs; as, sweetness, beauty. Abstract nouns 
are derived from adjectives. Hart, p. 26. 

A verbal noun is the name of an action or 
state of being; as, singing, standing, seeing. 

Harvey, p. 26, art. 8. 

A diminutive noun is. one derived from an- 
other noun, and expressing some object of the 
same kind, but smaller; as, stream, streamlet ; hill, 
hillock. Hart, p. 26. 

Class nouns are names which can be applied to 
each individual of a class or group of objects; as, 
horse, apple, man. Harvey, p. 25. 

15. All words, signs, phrases, and sentences taken 
technically (that is, independently of their mean- 
ing, and merely as, things spoken of), are nouns; 



GRAMMAR. 103 

or, rather, are things read and construed as nouns; 
because, in such a use, they temporarily assume the 
syntax of nouns. Adjectives made nouns: "The 
ancient of days did sit." — Bible, Pronouns made 
nouns: "The nameless He, whose nod is nature's 
birth." — Young. 

Verbs made nouns : "Avaunt all altitude, and 
stare, and start theatric." — Cowper. 

Participles made nouns: "For the crying of 
the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise." 
—Bible. 

Adverbs made nouns : " In these cases we ex- 
amine the why, the what, and the hoio of things."- — 
UEstrange. ^ 

Conjunctions made nouns: "Your if is the 
only peace-maker ; much virtue is in your z/." — Shak, 

Prepositions made nouns; "O, not like me; 
for mine's beyond, beyond." — Shak. 

Interjections made nouns: "With hai^k and 
whoop and wild halloo.^' — Scott. 

Brown's Gram of Gram. , pp. ^38, ^39. 

Phrases made nouns: ''''Towards the earth^s 
centre is down." Kerl, p. 71, 

Sentences made nouns : " ' W? celebrate this day^ 
was printed on their banners." Holbrook, p. 31. 

Signs used as nouns: * is called an asterisk. 

Id., p. 31, 

16. Personification means considering inanimate 
objects as persons endued with life; as, we sa}^ of 
the earth, "sAe is fruitful;" of the sun, '-'he has 
risen in his strength ; " of time, " he flies on rapid 
wings." Hart, p. 27. 

17. No uniform rule can be given. In general^ 



104 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

however, nouns become masculine which indicate 
superior strength, energy and firmness. Those, on 
the contrarj^, are feminine which indicate delicacy, 
weakness or timidity. Examples of those which 
are considered masculine are, sun, time, death, etc. 
Examples of feminine are, moon, earth, church, 
nature, etc. Id., p. 27, 

18. When they refer to a class of the same char- 
acter they are made plural by adding s when it 
does not coalesce in sound, otherwise es ; as, the 
Cherokees; the Napoleons; the twelve Caesars. 

Comraon School Question Book, p. ISO. 

19. When the collective noun is used in the plural 
number, or when 11 denotes the whole collection as 
one thing, it is of the neuter gender; when it is 
used otherwise, its gender corresponds with the 
sex of the individuals composing the collection. 
Ex. — " Every generation has its peculiarities.'^ " The 
congregation will please to retain their seats." 

Kerl, p. 82, art. 226. 

20. Most nouns are made plural by adding s to 
the singular. 

21. Ashes, annals, cattle, scissors, suds, tongs; 
pride, place, business, gold ; news, wages, bellows, 
measles. Id., pp. 87, 88. 

22. In compound words the sign of the plural is 
commonly added to the important part; 'd^, fathers- 
in-law ; fly-traps ; courts-martial; song-queens. 

Hoihrook, p. 33. 

23. By making plural the title only ; as, Mr. Har- 
per, Messrs. Harper; Miss Brown, the Misses Brown; 
Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee. Kerl, p. 99, art. 259. 

24. When the title is Mrs., or when the words 



GRAMMAR. 105 

two, three, etc., stands before the title, the latter 
noun is made plural. " The Mrs. Barlows." " The 
two Miss Scotts." Kerl, p. 92, art, 260. 

25. As follows : " Mind your ps and ^'5; the 9'3 
and ll's; them's; the +'s; ''those 3's and ^'s. 

Harvey, p. 29. 

26. Case is that moditication of nouns and pro- 
nouns which, by nieans of form or position, indi- 
cates their relation to other words, or their inde- 
pendent use. Holbrookes Gram., p. 35. 

27. Case. 

1. ^NTominative. 

1. Constructions: 

1. Dependent. 

1. Subj. of finite verb, 

2. In the predicate, 

3. In apposition with a noun or pronoun, 

4. In apposition with a sentence. 

2. Absolute constructions : 

1. By direct address, 

2. By exclamation, 

3. By inscription, 

4. By pleonasm, 

5. With a participle. 

2. Possessive. 

1. Constructions: 

1. Limitins^ noun of difl'erent signification, 

2. Limiting noun of same signification. 

3. Objective. 

1. Constructions : 

1. Obj. of transitive verb in active voice, 

2. Obj. of a preposition, 

3. Sub. of an infinitive. 



106 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

4. In the predicate, 

5. In apposition, 

6. By enallage for the possessive. 

28. (1) In the singular, by adding an apostrophe 
and letter s to the nominative form. 

(2) In the plural (a), when nom. ends in s, 
by adding only the apostrophe. 

(b) Irregular plurals in the same way as the 
singular. 

29. S is frequently omitted, when its addition 
would occasion too many successive sounds of s. 

Id., p. 36. , 

30. It is an abbreviation of the old English gen- 
itive, ending es or is; the sign (') being called an 
apostrophe, because it indicates the omission of the 
e or i. Id,, p. 36. 

31. A change of words, or a substitution of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mode or voice 
of the same word, for another. 

Webster's Unabridged. 

32. A pronoun is a w^ord used instead of a noun. 
Bingham's Gram, of the English Language, p. Jfi. 

33. The word pronoun means for a noun. 

Id.^f. iO. 

34. A pronoun is used to avoid the unpleasant 
repetition of a noun. 

Fewsmith's Elementary Gram , p. 55. 
The common definition of a pronoun, that it 
is a " word used instead of a noun," is not correct. 
A pronoun is simply a noun expressing its peculiar 
meaning as completely as a noun of any other class 
expresses its own meaning. 

Butler's Practical and Critical Gram., p. 32, 



GRAMMAR. 107 

The pronoun takes the place of the noun, not 
merely to be a substitute for it, or to avoid a clisa- 
greeble repetition, but to represent it in some im- 
portant relation. Greene's English Gram., p. 69. 

35. Pronouns may be divided into four classes : 
personal, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. 

Practical and Critical Gram.^ Butler, jp. 33. 

36. A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form 
determines its person and number. 

Clark's Normal Gram., p. 92, def. 95. 

37. Personal pronouns have the sub-classes sim- 
ple and compound. 

Complete English Gram., Holhrook, p. 39. 
88. The simple personal pronouns are, I, thou or 
you, he, she, it ; and their plurals, we, ye, they, etc. 

Id., p. 39, art. 234,. 

39. The compound personal pronouns are, my- 
self, thyself, himself, herself, itself; and their plu- 
rals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, etc. 

Id., p. 39, art. 235. 

40. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

English Gram., Smith, p. 19, art. 135. 

41. The first and second persons being always 
present, their genders are supposed to be known. 

Id., p. 19, art. 136. 

42. A relative pronoun is one that may stand for 
any grammatical person; and connects clauses; as, 
I who speak will lead the way. Holbrook, p. 39. 

43. Relative pronouns have the sub-classes sim- 
ple, compound, and double. Id., p. 39, 237. 

44. Who, which, and that. 

English Gram., Smith, p. 58, 



108 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

45. As, by an ellipsis of the relative, after such, 
many, or sa7ne, seems to take its place, and may be 
reo^arded as a relative, though properly speaking, 
it is never a relative. English Gram., Greene, p, 78. 

46. (a) Who is used when the antecedent denotes 
a person : As, " the boy loho studies.^' 
Bingham's Gram, of the English Language, p. 4S, §«^, 

par. 5. 

(b) Which is used when the antecedent de- 
notes a lower animal, or a thing without life; as, 
*' the horse lohich I saw." Id., p. ^5, § 31, par. 6. 

(c) That is used in the place of who or which; 
" The girl that we saw." Id., p. 4,5, § 31, par. 7. 

47. Who is varied in declension to indicate the 
cases only. Which, that and what are not declined. 
But the word whose is also used as the possessive 
of which. 

Obj. Indp. 

Whona, Who or whom, 

Which, Which, 

That, That, 

What. What. 

Normal Gram., Clark, p. 95, def. 96, obs. 3, 

48. Which is preferred to that when it introduces 
an explanatory proposition. 

English Grammar, Lee ^ Hadley, p. 150. 

49. That is generally preferred to which when it 
joins a restrictive proposition to its antecedent. 
Ex. — "I love the flag that moved through the per- 
ilous fight." Id., p. 150. 

50. (a) What is both a relative pronoun and a 
limiting adjective, and is equivalent as an adjective 



Kom. 


Pos. 


Who, 


Whose, 


Which, 


Whose. 


That, 




What. 





GRAMMAR. 109 

to that or those, as relative to which, and, conse- 
quently, has a double construction. 

English Grammar, Greene, p. 77. 

(b) The chief characteristic of the relative, 
what, is its double use; being equivalent to that 
[thing] lohich, all ichich, the [thing] which, or those 
[things] lohich, etc. 

Complete English Gram,. Holhrook, p. ^1. 

(c) What by some authors is considered a 
simple relative, by some a double relative, and by 
others a compound relative. 

On page 58, in Harvey's English Grammar; 
page 95, Clark's Normal Grammar; page 77, 
Greene's English Grammar, and in many others, it 
is classed as a simple relative. In Holbrook's Com- 
plete English Grammar, page 41, it is classed as a 
double relative. In Smith's New English Gram- 
mar, page 60, it is called a compound relative pro- 
noun. 

51. What is used only when the antecedent is 
omitted. 

Bingham's Gram, of the English Language, p. 4-6. 

52. If the antecedent is supplied, which must 
always be used. Id., p. J^7. 

53. What, when a relative, can be changed into 
that which, or the thing which; as, "Tell me what 
[that which] you know." That, or the thing, should 
be parsed as the antecedent part of lohat, and which 
as the relative. 

English Gram., Harvey, p. 58, rem. 4-- 

54. The compound relatives are formed by ad- 
ding ever, so, and soever to the simple relatives. 

. Id., p. 59, art. 70. 



110 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

55. They are, whoever^ whoso, whosoever, whichso- 
ever, whichever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

Id., p. 69, art. 70. 

56. An interrogative pronoun is one used for ask- 
ing a question, in answering a question indefinitely, 
and in similar indefinite expressions; as, who, 
which, and what in the following sentences : 

Question.— Who did it? Which was it? What 
is truth ? 

Indefinite Answers. — I know not who did it. 
Which it was. What truth is. 

Indefinite Expressions. — Find out who did it. 
Which it was. What truth is. 

English Gram., Quackenbos, p. 68, art. 166. 

57. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, or 
equivalent expression, instead of which the pro- 
noun is used. 

English Gram., Harvey, p. 50, art. 57, 

58. The antecedent may be a noun, a difl'erent 
pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. Id., p. 50, art. 57. 

59. Interrogatives, or relatives of the interroga- 
tive kind, when they are used in asking questions, 
have no antecedents, but relate to some word or 
phrase contained in the answer, which is called a 
subsequent. English Gram,, Smith, p. 61. 

60. The antecedent and subsequent are opposed 
to each other in meaning; the former signifying 
going before, the latter following after. Id., p. 61. 

61. Pronouns have the same modifications of 
gender, person, number, and case, as nouns. 

Normal Gram., Clark, p. 92. 

62. An adjective is a word limiting a noun or 
pronoun. Complete English^ Gram., Holhrook,p. 55. 



GRAMMAR. Ill 

63. Adjectives may be divided into two chief 
classes, descriptive and definitive. 

KerVs Common School Gram, p. 108, art. 318. 

64. A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies. 
Ex. — "The green forest glowed in golden light." 

Id., p. 108, art. 319. 

65. A definitive adjective merely specifies or lim- 
its. Ex. — There are many wealthy farmers in this 
country. Id., p. 108, art. 320. 

^'o. Adjectives may be divided into several smaller 
classes; namely, common, proper, participial, com- 
pound, numeral, and pronominal. 

Id. , p 108, art. 821. 

67. A common adjective is any ordinary adjec- 
tive that expresses quality or circumstance; as, 
good, upper, daily. Id. , p. 108, art 322, 

68. A proper adjective is an adjective derived 
from a proper noun ; as, French, American, Web- 
sterian. English Gram., Harvey, p. 38, art. 4^. 

69. A participial adjective is one that has the 
form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting 
the idea of time; as, an amusing story. 

^irst Lines of English Gram., Goold Broion, p. 30. 

70. A compound adjective is one that consists of 
two or more words joined together; as, nut-brown, 
laughter-loving. Id., p. 30, rem. 6. . 

71. A numeral adjective is a definitive adjective 
that expresses number. 

Common School Gram., Kerl, p. 109, art. 326. 

72. Numeral adjectives are divided into four 
classes; cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, and indef- 
inite. Id., p. 109, art, 827, 



112 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

73. (1) A cardinal numeral tells how many; as, 
one, two. 

(2) An ordinal numeral tells which one; as, 
first, second. 

(3) A multiplicative numeral tells how many 
fold; as, single, double. 

(4) An indefinite numeral expresses number 
indefinitely ; as, few, many. Id., p. 109, art. 827, 

74. Ans, No. 1, Pronominal adjectives are defin- 
itives, most of which may, without an article pre- 
fixed, represent a noun understood ; as, all men, 

each soldier. 

English Gram., Harvey, p. ^0, art. ^6. 

Ana. No. 2. Pronominal adjectives are defini- 
tive adjectives that are sometimes used as pronouns. 

Common School Gram., Kerl, p. 109, art. 328. 

Ans. No. 3. A pronominal adjective is a defin- 
itive word which may either accompany its noun, 
or represent it understood; as, '•'All [men] join to 
guard what each [man] desires to gain." — Pope. 
First Lines of English Gram., Brown, p. 30. 

75. Modifications: l^umber; comparison. 
Complete English Gram., Holbrook, p 57, art. 328. • 

76. Number is applied to the adjectives this and 
that; which have the plurals these and those. One 
has its plurals, ones, few, several, many ; each has its 
plural, all. Id., p. 57, art. 329. 

77. The comparison of an adjective is a state- 
ment of its difi'erent forms. 

Practical and Ciritical Gram., Butler, p. 69. 

78. This is called comparison because the object 
of changing the forms of adjectives is to express 
comparison. Id., p. 69. 



GRAMMAR. 113 

79. Ans. No. 1. The degrees of comparison are 
three, positive, comparative, and superlative. 

English Gram, and Analysis, Hart, p. 4^1. 
Ans. No. 2. There mav be four des^rees of com- 
parison. 

(1) Diminutive, Bluish, Saltish. 

(2) Positive, Blue, Salt. 

(3) Comparative, Bluer, Salter. 

(4) Superlative, Bluest, Saltest. 

Normal Gram., Clark, p. 106. 

80. The diminutive degree denotes an amount 
of the quality less than the positive. It is com- 
monly formed by adding ish to the form of the 
positive. Ex. — Blu^^^,. salt^sA. 

Id., p. 106, def, 108, 

81. The positive degree expresses quality in its 
simplest form. Ex. — Blue, salt, large. 

Id., p. ^106, def. 109. 

82. The comparative degree expresses an increase ■ 
or a ' decrease of the positive. It is commonly 
formed by adding er, or the words more or less, to 
the form of the positive. Ex. — Larger, purer, 
richer, more common, less objectionable. 

83. The superlative degree expresses the greatest 
increase or decrease of the quality of the adjective. 
It is commonly formed by adding est^ or the vrords 
most or least, to the form of the positive. Ex. — 
Largest, most ungrateful, uppermost. 

Id., p. 106, def 111. 

84. In ascending comparison, the comparative 
and superlative degrees are regularly formed. 

Ist. By adding to the positive of monosylla- 
8 



114 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

bles, r or er for the comparative, and st or est for 
the superlative ; as, wise, wiser, wisest, 

2d. By prefixing to the positive of adjectives 
of more than one syllable, more for the comparative, 
and most for the superlative; as, honorable, more 
honorable, most honorable. ^ 

English Gram , Harvey, p. 4^, art. 52. 

85. In descending comparison, the comparative 
is formed by prefixing less, and the superlative by 
prefixing least, to the positive; as, wise, less wise, 
least wise. Id., p. 4^, art. 52. 

86. Regular comparison is made by adding to the 
positive, er for the comparative, and est for the su- 
perlative. Ex. — soft, softer, softest. 

Complete English 'Gram., Holbrook, p. 57, art. 339. 

87. Positive, good — comparative, better — super- 
lative, best. Id. p. 59, art. 3^4. 

88. Some adjectives having more than one super- 
lative are redundant ; as, fore, former, foremost or 
first, near, nearer, nearest or next. Id.,p. 58, art. 34,2. 

89. Ans. No. 1. Some adjectives can not be com- 
pared — the qualities they indicate not being sus- 
ceptible of increase or diminution. Ex. — Round, 
square, triangular, infinite. 

Normal Gram., Clark, p. 108, art. 7. 
Ans. No. 2. It is hypercritical ly afiiirmed by 
most grammarians that such adjectives as round, 
straight, perfect, and complete, do not admit of 
comparison. All usage, however, is against them. 
It is obvious to any one but a grammarian, that 
more * perfect,' ' more complete,' etc., are abbre- 
viated expressions for " more nearly perfect," etc. 
Complete English Gram., Holbrook, p. 58, art. 353, 



GRAMMAR. » 115 

Ans. No. 3. Adjectives denoting qualities which 
can not exist in diiferent degrees, can not, with 
propriety, be compared — though some writers, not 
taking them in their full sense, often use them in 
the comparative and superlative degrees. Ex. — 
Blind, perfect, straight. " My sincerest regards," 
*'Our sight is the most perfect of our senses." 

English Gram., Harvey, p. ^5, ari. SI. 

Ans. No. 4" Adjectives which express a posi- 
tive or absolute degree of quality are not compared. 
Such are square, circular, universal, etc. But as 
very few things on earth come up to an absolute 
standard, usage sanctions the giving to positive 
terms a comparative meaning. Thus, we say, "A 
is more upright than B," meaning that A comes 
nearer to being an upright man than B. 
Bingham's Gram, of the Eng. Language, p. 38, § 25, 
par, 12, rems. 6 and 6. 

90. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjec- 
tives come together, the monosyllables are placed 
first, and all are compared by prefixing more and 
most; as, ''the more nice and elegant parts." 

English Gram., Harvey, p. 1^6, art. 52, rem. 2, 

91. An article is the word the, a, or an, placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. 105, art. 306, 

92. That of definitive adjectives. 

Bingham's Gram, of the Eng. Language, p. 39, § 27. 

93. The is called the definite article, because it 
points out some particular thing. 

Greeners English Gram., p. 59, art. 57. 



116 ' THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

94. (a) A or an is called the indefinite article, be- 
cause it does not point out any particular thing. 

Id., p. S9, art. 67. 
(b) A and an are both called the indefinite ar- 
ticle, because they are but a later and an earlier 
form of the same word, have the same meaning, 
and differ in use only. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. 106, art. 312. 

95. A should be used whenever the next word 
begins with a consonant sound. 

Id., p. 106, art. 313, 

96. An should be used whenever the next word 
begins with a vowel sound. Id., p. 107, art. 31^. 

97. ]^o article is used when we refer chiefly to 
the nature of the object, to the class generally, or 
to only a part indefinitely; also when the sub- 
stantive is sufi3.ciently definite itself, or is rendered 
so by other words. Id., p. 107, art. 315. 

98. A verb is a word which expresses being, ac- 
tion, or state; as, I am; George writes-, the house 
stands. Harvey^p. 66, art. 79. 

99. Ans. No. 1. Verbs are divided, according to 
their use, into transitive and intransitive; accord- 
ing to their form, into regular and irregular. 

Eng. Gram., Greene, pp. 86, 89, arts. 82, 8^. 

Ans. No. 2. With respect to their use, verbs 
may be divided into copulative, transitive, and in- 
transitive. With respect to their nature, mto active, 
passive, neuter. With respect to their form, into 
regular or irregular. 

Eng. Gram.^ Harvey, pp. 66, 68, arts. 80, 81, 82, 

Ans, No. 3, Verbs are divided according to 



GKAMMAR. 117 

the functions they perform, into, I. Complete verbs. 
II. Incomplete verbs. 

Swinton's Progressive Gram. , p. 20, art. 61. 
Ans. No. 4" Verbs are divided, with respect 
to their form, into four classes: regular, irregular, 
redundant, and defective. Verbs are divided again, 
with respect to their signification, into four classes : 
active- transitive, active-intransitive, passive and 
neuter. First Lines Eng. Gram., Brown, p. 39. 

Ans, No. 5. Verbs are divided, in regard to the 
chief mode of combining them, into principal and 
auxiliary. KerVs Com. School G7'am.,p. 128, art. 390. 

100. Ans. No. 1. A regular verb is one in which 
the past tense and the perfect participle ate formed 
by adding d or ed to the present. 

Eng. Gram. , Lee & Hadley, p. 180. 
Ans. No. 2. A regular verb is one which 
forms its past indicative and past participle by ad- 
ding ed to the present by the rules of spelling. 
Complete Eng. Gram. , Holbrook, p. 61, art. 379. 

101. An irregular verb is one which does not 
form its past indicative and past participle by ad- 
ding ed to the present. Id., p. 61., art. 380. 

102. A verb is said to be defective when some of 
its parts are wanting. 

English Gram., QuacJcenbos, p. 138, art. 385. 

103. The defective verbs are ought, beware, 
would, quoth or quod, wit, wis, wot, methinks, and 
meseems. Id., p. 138, art. 385. 

104. A redundant verb is a verb that has more 
than one form for some of the modes and tenses. 

Clark's Normal Gram., p. lU, def. 123. 



118 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

105. Examples of redundant verbs, — am or be — 
break, broke or brake, broken or broke. 

Id., p. lU, def. 123. 

106. An impersonal verb is one by which an ac- 
tion or state is asserted independently of any par- 
ticular subject. 

Ex. — It rains. It snows. It thunders. 

Greeners English Gram., p. 90, art. 84-. 

107. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of 
which the different modes, tenses, numbers, etc., 
are formed. 

Analytical Gram., Pinneo, p. 73^ art. 173. 

108. They are so called, because auxiliary means 
helping. Id., p. 73, art. 17^. 

109. The auxiliary verbs are, shall, should, will, 
would; may, might; can, could, (having two 
tenses); must, (with one tense); and do, be, and 
have, used in all the tenses. Id., p. 73, art. 175. 

110. A principal verb is a verb that expresses by 
itself the act or state, or the chief part of it. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. 128, art. 391, 

111. A complete verb is a verb that has an ap- 
propriate form for all the modes and tenses. Ex. — 
Love, recite — see — teach. 

Clark's Normal Gram., p. 11 If., def. 121, 

112. A transitive verb receives or requires an ob- 
ject to complete its meaning. 

« Greene's English Gram. , p. 86, art. 82. 

113. An intransitive verb neither receives nor re- 
quires an object to complete its meaning. 

Id., p. 86, art. 82. 

114. An active-transitive verb is a verb that ex- 



GRAMMAR. 119 

presses an action which has some person or thing 
for its object ; as, " Cain slew AbeV 
First Lines of English Gram., Br own, p. 39 ^ chap, 6. 

115. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that 
expresses an action which has no person or thing 
for its object; as, "John walks. ^' Id. p. 89, chap. 6. 

116. The subdivision of verbs into active-transi- 
tive and active-intransitive is not only needless, but 
partial in its application. The distinction is made 
to apply exclusively to active verbs; whereas it 
may apply as well to neuter as to active verbs. 

Greene's English Gram. , p. 87, art. 82. 

117. The object or complement of the transitive 
verb stands as an answer to the question wliat? or 
whom? with the verb. 7c/., p. 87, art. 82. 

118. To determine whether a verb is ti'ansitive or 
intransitive, we have only to use this test: Ask 
with it the question what? or whom? and if, in its 
signiiication as used in the example in question, it 
has, as answer, a noun or a pronoun, meaning a 
different thing from the subject, or if one is obvi- 
ously required to complete the meaning intended, 
it is transitive ; otherwise it is intransitive. 

Id,, pp. 87, 88, art. 82, 

119. A transitive verb in a proposition neces- 
8arily implies three terms — a subject, a predicate, 
and an object. 

Ex. — Csesar (sub.) crossed (pred.) the Rubicon 
(obj.). ^ ^ Id., p. 88. 

120. An intransitive verb requires but two terms : 
a subject and a predicate; as, " The tempest (sub.) 
rages'' (pred.). Id,,p, 88, 

121. Some verbs are, in their nature, transitive; 



120 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

others are naturally intransitive; and some others 
are used transitively or intransitively. 

examples: 

(1) " Cold blows the wind." " Blows '^ is in- 
transitive. 

(2) "The wind blows the dust." "Blows" is 
transitive. 

(3) " It has swept through the earth." Intran- 
sitive. 

(4) " Jane has swept the floor." Transitive. 

(5) "God moves in a mysterious way." In- 
transitive. 

(6) " Such influences do not move me." Trans- 
itive, 

Clar¥s Normal Gram., p. 113, drf. 116, ohs. 1. 

122. Ans. No. 1. A copulative verb is used to as- 
sert the predicate of a proposition of the subject; 
as, " Sugar is sweet." 

Harvey^s Eng. Gram. , p. 66 y art. 80. 
Ans. No. 2. Incomplete verbs that require as 
complement a word (adjective, noun, or pronoun) 
relating to their subject are called neuter or copula 
verbs. 
Swintons Progressive Eng. Gram., p. ^1, art. 65. 

123. The principal copula verb is the verb to be. 
Other verbs belonging to this class are, become, 
seem, appear, grow, feel, look, smell, taste. 

Id., p. 21, art. 66. 

124. A peculiarity of these copula verbs is that 
each implies in its meaning the verb to be. Thus 
' become ' is really to come to be ; ' appear ' is to be 
in appearance. d., p. 21, art. 66. 



GRAMMAR. 121 

125. A derivative verb generally forms its prin- 
cipal parts in the same way as the primitive verb. 

Ex. — Mis^a^^', mis^oo^, mis^a^e?i; undergo, un- 
derwent, undergone, 

KerVs Common School Gram.j p. 1^6 ^ art. 872, 

126. To verbs belong voice, mode, tense, num- 
ber, and person. 

Butler^s Practical and Critical Gram., p. 77, 

127. An8, No, 1. Voice is a property of transitive 
verbs founded on the relation of the subject to the 
action. Id., p. 77, 

Ans. No. 2, Voice is that modification of the verb 
which shows the relation between the verb and its 
subject. 

Complete Eng. Gram.y Holbroohy p. 6^, art. Jf.ll, 

128. The active voice represents the subject as 
acting. English Gram., Greene, p. 91, art. 87, 

129. The passive voice represents the subject as 
acted upon. Id.,]). 91, art. 87, 

130. Ans. No. 1. Voice is a property that belongs 
to transitive verbs only. 

KerVs Common School Gram. , p, 129, art 398, 
Ans. No. 2. All intransitive verbs are in the 

active voice because they have the form of verbs 

whose subjects act. 

Complete English Gram. , Holhrook, p. 6Jp, art 4^13. 

131. Mode is that modification of the verb which 
indicates the manner or condition of the assertion. 

id. , p. eJf, art. 4,21, 

132. Modes are of two classes, finite an infinite. 

Id., p. 64, art. 421. 

133. The finite modes are those which are finited 
or limited by person and number. Id., p. 64, art. 



122 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

134. The finite modes are the indicative, poten- 
tial, subjunctive, and imperative.* 

Id., p. 64., art. 4J3^. 

135. The indicative mode is used to declare a 
thing as a fact or to ask a question ; as, '' he loves." 
"Does he love?'' 

Gram, of the English Language j Bingham, p. 59, § .^. 

136. The subjunctive mode represents a thing 
not as a fact, but as simply conceived in the mind ; 
as, " if I were a king." Id., p. 59, § 4^. 

137. The onl}^ difference between the subjunctive 
mode and the indicative mode is in the third per- 
son singular of the two tenses, the present and the 
present perfect. Thus: 

Indicative present : (If though, etc.) he loves. 

Subjunctive present: (If, though, etc.) he love. 

Indicative pres. perfect: (If or though) he has 
loved. 

Subjunctive pres. perfect: (If or though) \\Q,have 
loved. 
Progressive Eng. Gram. , Swinton, pp. Jf8, Jf9, art. 158. 

138. The explanation of these differences is, that 
in what is called the subjunctive mode there is an 
auxiliary left out — either the word will^ or the words 
may, can, should. M., p. ^9, art. 159. 

139. The subjunctive is used, for the most part, in 
propositions expressing a condition or a supposi- 
tion, after the conjunctions, if, unless, except, though, 

* It may be well to state that all grammarians do not agree 
with this classification. Some authorities, as Butler, for instance, 
do not recognize the potential mode; others ignore the subjunct- 
ive, etc. The classification given is, however, the one most gen- 
erally accepted. 



GRAMMAR. 123 

whether, lest, and until. It is now rarely used, the 
forms of the indicative having taken its place. 
Bingham^ s Gram. Eng. Language ^ p. 59, § 4-^, rem,. 2, 

140. The imperative mode is used in command- 
ing, exhorting, or entreating; as, " Children, obey 
your parents." '^Always tell the truth." "Save 
me, Hubert ! Save me ! " Id., p. 60, § JfB. 

141. The imperative is now used only in the sec- 
ond person, singular and plural, and the subject is 
generally omitted, as it is always the pronoun you, 
and the person addressed is sufficiently known 
without expressing it. Id., p. 60, % 4-3, rem. 2, 

142. The potential mode denotes power, possibil- 
ity, liberty, obligation and determination. 

Analytical Gram. , Pinneo, p. 63, art. 1^6. 

143. This is so called, because potential means 
able, having power. Id., p. 63, art. 147. 

144. The infinite modes are those which have n6 
limitation of person and number. 

Complete Eng. Gram., Holbrook, p. 69, art. 476. 

145. They are ordinarily called infinitives and 
participles. Id., p. 69, art. 477. 

146. Bef. No. 1. The infinitive mode is that form 
of the verb which is not limited to a subject, or 
which has no subject; as, "to write." 

English Gram, and Analysis, Hart, p. 58. 
Def. No. 2. The infinitive is a verbal noun, and 
expresses the action of the verb simply, without 
reference to any subject. " To play." 
Bingham^ s Gram, of the Eng. Language, p. 61, § 4^' 

Bef. No. 3. A verb used without limitation by 
a subject, is in the infinitive mode. 

Clark's Normal Gram., p 119, def. 132. 



124 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Def. No. 4. The infinitive mode is the name of 
the action, unlimited (from Latin m, not, and finis, 
a limit) by number or person. It is generally pre- 
ceded by the sign to, but not always; as, I like to 
sing; we saw him run. The infinitive is really a 
noun. 
Progressive Eng. Gram., Sivinton, p. ^9, art. ISJf., 

Def. No. 5. The infinitive mode expresses the 
action, being, or state, without afiirming it; as, to 
write. English Gram., Harvey, p. 76, art. 95. 

Def. No. 6. *An infinitive is a form of the verb 
that generally begins with to, and that expresses 
the act or state without predicating it. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. 151, art. Jfll. 

Def No. 7. The infinitive represents the action 
or state as an abstract noun. 

Greeners English Gram , p. 9^, art. 89, def. 9. 

Def. No. 8. The infinitive mode partakes of 
the nature of the verb and of that of the noun. 
Practical and Critical Gram., Butler, p. 79. 

Def. No 9. The infinitive is a form of the verb 
which names the action or being in a general way, 
without asserting it of anything. 

Higher Lessons in English, Reed and Kellogg, p. W^. 

Def. No. 10. The infinitive mode is that form 
of the verb which is used to express an action, a 
feeing, or a state, which is not limited to a subject. 
Feicsmith^s Elementary Gram., p. 73, 

Def. No. 11. The infinitive mode is used to ex- 
press an action not limited either by person or 
number. 

Smith's English Gram, on the Productive System, p. 65, 
art. 4,79. 



GRAMMAH. 125 

Def. No. W, Verbs have another substantive 
form besides that in ing. This form is usually pre- 
ceded by the preposition to, and is called the infini- 
tive of the verb. 

Boltwood^s English Gram., p. 56, § 5^. 
Def. No IS. The infinitive mode expresses an 
action or state not limited to a subject. 

Quackenbos^s English Gram., p 99, art ^83. 
Def. No. H. The infinitive mode is used to ex- 
press an action or a state of being in a general and 
unlimited manner. 

Analytical Gram. , Pinneo, p, 64-, ort. 153. 
Def. No, 15. The infinitive mode is that form 
of the verb which expresses the being, action, or 
passion, in an unlimited manner, and without per- 
son and number. 

Goold Broion^s Elementary Gram. , p. IfO. 
Def. No. 16. Participles and infinitives are as- 
suming verbal words. They may be used as nouns, 
as adjectives and as adverbs. 

English Gram., Lee & Hadley, p. 211. 

147. To is called the sign of the infinitive. 

Id., p. m. 

148. After the active voice of the verbs hid, make, 
need, let, feel and dare; after let in the passive, and 
after some other words, to is omitted. Id., p. 212, 

149. There are two infinitives — the present and 
the perfect. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. 151, art. 4-72. 

150. The present infinitive denotes, simply the 
act or state. Id., p. 151, art. 473. 

151. The present infinitive consists of to, com- 
bined with the simplest form of the verb ; or of to 



126 NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

be, with a simple participle. Ex. — To write, to be 
writing, to be written. Id.j p. 151, art. J^74'. 

152. The perfect infinitive represents the act or 
state as completed at the time referred to. 

Id., p. 152, art ^75, 

153. The perfect infinitive consists of to have, or 
to have been, combined with a single participle. 

Id., p. 152, art. ^76. 

154. Infinitives and participles have the construc- 
tion of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

English Gram., Holbrook, p., 129, rule 20. 

155. Def. No. 1. A participle is a word derived 
from a verb, partaking of the properties of a verb 
and of an adjective or a noun. 

Harvey^ s Gram., p. 70. 

Def. No. 2. Participles are verbal adjectives 
which as verbs may require an object, and as ad- 
jectives may qualify nouns. 

Swinton''s Gram., p. 50, art. 168. 

Def. No. 3. A participle is a word derived from 
a verb, retaining the signification of its verb, while 
it also performs the ofiice of some other " part of 
speech." Clark's Normal Gram., p. 122, def 133. 

Def. No. 4,. A participle is that form of the 
verb which partakes of the nature both of a verb 
and of an adjective. 

HarVs Gram and Analysis, p. 62, 

Def. No. 5. A participle is a word having the 
signification of a verb, but the construction of an 
adjective. Greene's Eng. Gram., p, 97 ^ art. 91, 

Def. No. 6. The participle is a verbal adjective, 
limiting a noun, or forming part of the predicate 
of a proposition. Bingham's Eng. Gram,, p. 63, § -^7. 



GRAMMAR. 127 

Def, No. 7. A participle is a form of the verb 
that expresses the act or state without predicating 
it, and generally resembles an adjective. 

KerVs Common School Gram., p. 154-, drt ^83. 

Def. No. 8. The participle partakes of the na- 
ture of the verb and of that of the adjective. 

Butler^s Gram., p. 79. 

Def. No. 9. Participle is a word derived from 
a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and 
of an adjective or noun. 

Goold Broim^s First Lines of English Gram., p. 63. 

Def No. 10. A participle is a form of the verb 
that generally qualifies or limits the meaning of a 
substantive, by assuming some action or state in 
connection with it. 

Quachenbos^s English Gram. , p. 102, art. 299. 

156. The participle is generally formed by adding 
ing, d, or, ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, 
are formed three participles, two simple and one 
compound ; as, 1, ruling ; 2, ruled ; 3, having ruled. 

Goold Brorvn's First Lines of English Gram., p. 63. 

157. Ans. No. 1. There are three participles; the 
present, the perfect, and the compound perfect 

Quackenbos^s English Gram. , p. 102, art. 300. 
Ans. No. 2. There are two participles; the 
present and the perfect, each of which is either 
simple or compound. 

Kerl's Common School Gram., p. 151^, art. 484- 
Ans. No. 3. There are, properly, two partici- 
ples, the present and the perfect. 

Greene's English Gram., p. 97, art. 92. 



128 ■ THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Ans. No. 4" Participles are distinguished as 
ri. Present, 
< 2. Prior present, 
(3. Past. 

Clark's Normal Gram.., p. 122, def. 135. 
Ans. No. 5. There are three participles : the 
present, the perfect, and the compound. 

Harvey's Eng. Gram., p. 70, art. 86. 
, Ans. No. 6. There are two participles — the 
present or incomplete participle, as, walking, draw- 
ing ; and the past, or complete participle, as, walked, 
drawn. Siointon's Gram., p, 50, art. 169, 

Ans. No. 7, English verbs have severally three 
participles — the first, or imperfect; the second, or 
perfect; and the third, or preperfect. 

Goold Brown's Lines of Eng. Gram., p. 64-. 
Ans. No. 8. Transitive verbs have six partici- 
ples ; namely, three active and three passive. They 
are called, present active, past active, perfect active, 
present passive, past passive, and perfect passive. 
Intransitive verbs have only three participles ; 
namely, present active, past active, and perfect 
active. 

Holbrookes Complete Eng. Gram., p. 72, art. 497. 

158. A simple participle is a single word derived 
from its verb. Clark's Normal Gram. , p. 122, def. 134* 

159. A compound participle consists of a simple 
participle, with the auxiliary participles having, or 
being, or having been. Id., p. 122, def. 135, 

160. The participle may have the construction of 
a uoun, adjective, or adverb, in addition to its ver- 
bal force, that of assuming action, being, or a state 
of being. Holbrookes Gram., p. 73, art. 507, 



GRAMMAR. 129 

^ 161. Tense is that attribute of a verb by which 
it expresses distinctions of time. 

HarVs Gram, and Analysis^ p\ 58. 

162. There are six tenses; the present, the past, 
and the future ; the present-perfect, the past-per- 
fect, and the future-perfect. Id.^ jyp. 58, 59. 

163. The present tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes simply present time. Id.^ p. 59. 

164. The past tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply past time. Id., p. 60. 

165. The future tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes simply future time. Id., p. 60. 

166. The present-perfect tense is that form of 
the verb which denotes what is past and finished, 
but which is connected also with the present time. 

Id., p. 60. 

167. The past-perfeet tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes what was past and finished, be- 
fore some other event which is also past. 

Id., p. 60. 

168. The future-perfect tense is that form of the 
verb which denotes a future time prior to some 
other time which is itself future. Id., p. 60. 

169. Alls. No. 1. The prior past tense, the past 
tense, the prior present tense, the present tense, the 
prior future tense, the future tense. 

Clarices Normal Gram., p. 126. 
Ans. No. 2. The present, the imperfect, the 
perfect, the pluperfect, the first-future and the sec- 
ond-future. 

Goold Brown* 8 Lines of Eng. Gram., p. ^l. 

170. The indicative mode has all the six tenses. 
9 Fewsmith's Eng, Gram., p. 75, 



180 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

171. Ans, No. 1. The subjunctive has two tenses: 
the present and past. fd., p. 75. 

Ans. No. 2. The subjunctive mode has three 
tenses — the present, past, and past-perfect. 

Harvey's Eng. Gram., p. 80, art. lO^. 
Ans. No. 3. The subjunctive mode has six 
tenses — the same as the indicative. 

Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 107, art. 107. 

172. The potential mode has four tenses — the 
present, the past, the present-perfect, and the past- 
perfect. ^ Fewsmith's Elementary Gram., p. 75. 

178. The infinitive mode has two tenses — the 
present, and the present perfect. Id., p. 75. 

174. The imperative mode has but one tense — - 
the presept. Id., p. 75. 

175. The forms of the verb are its various 
changes to express the time and state of an act in 
the several modes and tenses. 

Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 109, art. 109, 

176. Transitive verbs may have four forms. 

Id., p. 109, art. 109, 

177. The common, the emphatic, the progressive, 
and the passive. Id., p. 109, 

178. Intransitive verbs may have three forms. 

Id., jy. 110. 

179. The cofnmon, the emphatic, and the pro- 
gressive. Id., p. 110, 

180. The common (indefinite) form represents an 
act indefinitely, as a custom, or as completed, with- 
out reference to its progress. Id., p. 110. 

181. Examples of the common form — I love; I 
loved; I shall love; I have loved. Id., p. 110, 



GRAMMAR. 131 

182. The emphatic form represents an a*ct with 
emphasis. Id., p. 110. 

183. Examples of the emphatic form — I do write; 
I did write. Id.^ p, 110, 

184. The emphatic form is used in interrogative 
or negative sentences without emphasis. 

Id., p. 110. 

185. Ex. — Do you write? Did you write f I do 
write. Id., p. 110, 

186. The progressive form is used to den(5te ac- 
tion or state in progress. 

Harvey's English Gram., p. 82, 

187. Ex. — "I am writing;'^ "He had been sing- 
ing.'' Id,, p. 82, 

188. The progressive form may be used in all the 
modes and tenses. Id., p, 82, 

189. The progressive foi-m is formed by prefixing 
the various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to 
he to the present participle of the principal verb. 

Id., p. 82, 

190. The passive form denotes the reception of 
an act by its subject; as, *'I am struck.'^ 

• Id., p. 82, 

191. The passive form is used in all the modes 
and tenses. Id., p. 82. 

192. The passive form is formed by prefixing the 
various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be 
to the perfect participle of the principal verb. 

Id., p. 82, art. 106, rem. 5. 

193. The ancient form, or solemn style, is used 
in the Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes 
in poetry and burlesque; as, " Thou art the man. 

Id,, p. 82, art. 106, rem. 6. 



132 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

194. The interrogative and negative forms. 

Siglefs Evg. Exercises, pp. 92-96, 

195. The interrogative form is made by placing 
the subject after the first helping verb; as, " Have 
you seen my book?" Id., p. 92. 

196. The present and past tenses are usually 
made from the emphatic form; as, ^'Do you hear 
the alarm?" Id,, p. 92, 

197. The negative form of a verb is made by 
placing not after the first helping verb; as, '' He 
has not come." Id., p. 96, 

198. Compound forms result from the formation 
of interrogative and negative and from the pro- 
gressive and passive forms. Id., p. 99, lesson 51, 

199. Verbs have three persons — the first, the sec- 
ond, and the third; and two numbers — the singu- 
lar and the plural. These correspond to the per- 
son and the number of the subject. 

Bingham's Eng. Gram, p. 67, § 51, 

200. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of 
all the forms of the verb. 

Reed and Kellogg' s Gram, and Comp.,p. 205, les. 132, 

201. Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the 
forms of one number and person in all the modes 
and tenses. Id., p. 205, 

202. The inflection of a verb is called its conju- 
gation. Boltwood's Eng, Gram., p. 99, § 95. 

203. The verb has two conjugations, the weak 
and the strong. Id., p. 124, § ^^^. 

204. There are two methods of forming the past 
tense of verbs. Most verbs form it by adding d or 
ed to the theme ; as, 

Theme : move, live, form. 



GRAMMAR. 



133 



Past tense : movec^, Wved, forme<i. 

The past participle of all such verbs has the 
same form as the past tense. 

Such verbs are of the weak or regular conju- 
gation. Id., p. 102, % 99. 

205. Some verbs — mostly of one syllable, and all 
of Anglo-Saxon origin — form their past tense by 
changing the vowel sound of the theme, and form 
their past participle by adding n oven to the theme, 
or to the past tense ; as, 

Theme: draw, grow, ride. 

Past tense: drew, grew, rode. 

The past participle of such verbs generally ends 
in n or e?i. 

Such verbs are of the strong or irregular con- 
jugation. ^ Id., p, 102,% 99. 

206. The theme of the verb is that form which 
admits the preposition to before it ; as, to have, to 
see. This form is called the infinitive, or unlimited 
form, and is generally a. substantive. 

Id., p. 98, § 9J^. 

207. A word given as a model by which to inflect 
other words is called a paradigm. Id., p. 98, § 93. 

208. To make a verb in grammar, means to put 
it into any required form. Id., p. 118, § 115. 

209. To tell where a verb is made, is to name the 
tense, mode, form, voice, number, and person of 
the verb, if these can be known by the verb itself. 
If all these facts can not be known, name as many 
as possible. Id., p. 118, § 115. 

210. Ex. — Where is may he going made? In the 
present potential, progressive form, active voice. 

Id., p. 119. 



134 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

211. The present infinitive active without its sign 
to, is the root of the verb. 

Qiiackenbos's .Eng. Gram., p. 130, art. 375, 

212. The principal parts of a verb are : I. Pres- 
ent indicative; II. Past indicative; III. Past par- 
ticiple. Swintoyi^s Progressive Gram., p. 52, art. 178, 

213. These are called principal parts, because 
from them all other forms of the verb are made. 

Holbrookes Complete Eng. Gram., p. 7^, art. 529. 

214. Adverbs are words used to limit the appli- 
cation of verbs, participles, infinitives, adjectives, 
adverbs, prepositions and propositions. 

Lee ^ Hadley's Eng. Gram., p. 2H,. 

215. Adverbs are classified, according to the ideas 
they express, into those of: 

Manner; as, well, beautifully, quickly. 
Time ; as, now, to-day, to-morrow, soon. 
Place ; as, where, here, there, near. 
Cause; as, why, therefore. 
Degree or quality ; as^ very, exceedingly, terri- 
bly, much, less. 

i^umber; as, once, twice. 
Order; as, first, last, finally. 
Aflarmation ; as, truly, yes, certainly. 
Negation; as, no, not, not at all. 
Doubt; as, perhaps, possibly. 
Direction ; as, downward, inward, upward. 

Id., pp. "2^, 245. 

216. A modifying adverb is one which limits 
words or phrases without having any connecting 
power. Holbrookes Eng. Grayn., p. 92, art. 589. 

217. A conjunctive adverb is one which intro- 



GRAMMAR. 135 

duces a subordinate sentence and modifies its verb; 
as, we will know the truth when he returns. 

Id, p. 92, art 590, 

218. An adverb is equivalent to a preposition 
and its object limited by the adjective from which 
the adverb comes, or by some other adjective of 
like meaning;. 

Ex. — " He acts wisely" He acts in a wise man- 
ner, Bingham's Eng. Gram., j^- 87, § 6J/,, % 2, 

219. (1) Adverbs of manner are mostly derived 
from adjectives by adding ly ; as, loise, wisely, 

(2) Some adverbs are identical in form with 
the adjective; as, more beautiful. 

(3) Some adverbs are formed from nouns; as, 
daily, hourly. Id., p. 89, § 65, nos. 1, 2, 3, 

220. An adverb should be placed in close prox- 
imity to the word or words that it modifies. 

Swinton's Progressive Eng, Gram., p 109, art. 298, 

221. Adverbs have no modifications, except that 
a few are compared after the manner of adjectives; 
as, soon, sooner, soonest. Some are compared irreg- 
ularly ; as, well, better, best. 

Goold Broiim's Lines of Eng. Gram. , pp. 68, 69. 

222. A preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or pronoun to show its relation to some other word. 

Grammar and Analysis, Hart, p. 90, 

223. Prepositions are divided into three classes- 
simple, compound, and complex. 

Elementary Gram,, Fewsmith, p. 97, 

224. A simple preposition is a preposition con- 
sisting of a single word. 

Holbrookes Complete Eng. Gram. , p. 94i art, 618, note. 



136 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

225. Compound means compounded of two prep- 
ositions; as, out of, from between, etc. • 

Id.y p. 94-) art. 618, note. 

226. Complex refers to prepositions compounded 
of a preposition and some other part or parts of 
speech ; as, on account of, to the extent of, etc. 

Id., p, 94, art. 618, note. 

227. A conjunction is a word whose office it is to 
connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

Eng. Gram., Boltwood, pp. 87, 88. 

228. Conjunctions are classified on two bases; 
first, as to rank; second, as to signification. 

Holbrookes Eng. Gram., p. 96, art. 629. 

229. As to rank, conjunctions are coordinate and 
subordinate. Id., p. 96, art. 630. 

230. Coordinate connectives are those which 
join similar or homogeneous elements. 

Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 154, <^^'^- ^-i-^- 

231. Subordinate connectives are those which 
join dissimilar or heterogeneous elements. 

Id., p. 156, art. US. 

232. As to signification, conjunctions are copula- 
tive and 'disjunctive. 

HolbrooJcs Eng. Gram., p. 96, art. 633. 

233. A copulative conjunction simply connects 
the meaning of phrases or sentences; as, the moon 
shines and the wind blows. Id., p. 96, ari. 634- 

234. A disjunctive conjunction connects words, 
phrases, or sentences, yet indicates alternative, ad- 
versative, or antithetic meaning; as, he will go or 
stay; the shop was burned, but the house was 
saved. Id., p. 90, art. 635. 



GRAMMAR. 137 

235. An interjection is a word that is uttered 
merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion 
of the mind ; as, Oh ! alas ! 

First Lines of Eng. Gram., Brown, p, 71, 

236. Syntax treats of the construction of sen- 
tences. Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 16 If, art H7, 

237. A sentence is a complete expression of 
thought by means of words. 

Eng. Gram., Boltwood, p. 146, § 153, 

238. The expression of a thought involves at 
least three things: 

(1) Some subject of thought. 

(2) Some idea which is connected with the 
subject. 

(3) Some word which expresses the connection 

of the first and second ideas. 

Id., p. U6, § 153, 

239. The subject is the name of the thing spoken 
of. Siointon's Language Primer, p. 8^, 

240. The predicate is the word or words used 
with the subject in making the statement. 

Id., p, 84-. 

241. Sentences are classified as to structure and 
as to the nature of the proposition. 

Holbrookes English Gram., p. HO, art. 997. 

242. Simple, complete, abridged, complex, prin- 
cipal, compound, partial compound, subordinate, 
leading and coordinate. 

Id. pp. UO, Ul, arts. 999, 1000, 1001, 1002, 1003, 
1004, 1005, 1006, 1007, 1008. 

243. A simple sentence is one which contains but 
one subject and one finite verb ; as, " Life is short." 

English Gram, and Analysis, Hart, p. 102, 



138 THE NORxMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

244. A complex sentence is one which contains 
a simple sentence, with one or more clauses modi- 
fying either its subject or its verb; as, "A life which 
is spent in doing good can not be a failure." 

Id. , p. 102. 

245. A compound sentence is one which contains 
two or more sentences, whether simple or complex, 
connected by one or more conjunctions; as, "Life 
is short, but art is long." Id.^ p. 102, 

246. A complete sentence is one whose verb is 
finite. Holbrook''s English Gram. ^ p. 14-0, art. 1000. 

247. An abridged sentence is one whose verb is 
ki the infinitive or participial mode. 

Id , p. Ul, art. 1001. 

248. As to the nature of the proposition sentences 
are declarative, imperative and interrogative. 

Id., pp. Ul, U2, arts. 1009, 1010, 1011, 1012. 

249. A declarative sentence is one that declares 
something; as, ''The wind blows." 

Eng. Gram., Quaokenbos, p. 163, art. 470, 

250. An interrogative sentence is one that asks 
a question; as, "Does the wind blow?" 

Id., p. 163, art. ^71, 

251. An imperative sentence is one that expresses 
a eetnmiwfd, an exhortation, an entreaty, or per- 
mission, and contains a verb in the imperative 
mode; as, "Let the wind blow." 

Id., j)p. 163, 164, art. 474. 

252. An exclamatory sentence is one that ex- 
claims something ; as, " How the wind blows ! " 

Id., p. 164, art. 477. 



GRAMMAR. 139 

253. The elements of sentences are words, phrases, 
and clauses. 

KerCs Common School Gram., p. ^31, art 590. 

254. All sentences can be resolved into proposi- 
tions or clauses. Id., p. 231, art 591. 

255. A proposition is a subject combined with its 
predicate. Id., p. 229, art 582. ' 

256. Every proposition must have at least two 
principal parts; a subject-nominative and a pre- 
dicate-verb. Id.y p. 231, art 594,. 

257. A clause contains the elements of a sen- 
tence but does not make complete sense. 

Eng. Gram., Boltwood, p. 1^9, § 156. 

258. It is always used as a modifier. 

Id., p. U9\ § 156. 

259. A phrase is any number of related words in 
proper order, not forming a sentence or a clause. 

Id., p. U9, § 156. 

260. A modifier is a dependent word, phrase or 
clause, added to some other word or expression, to 
limit or vary the meaning. 

KerVs Com. School Gram., p. 233, art 605. 

261. Anal} sis in grammar is the separation of 
sentences into the parts which compose them. 

Elementary Gram. , Fewsmith, p. 10^. 

262. Synthesis is the construction or formation 
of sentences from words. Id., p. 10 Jp. 

263. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more 
words, phrases, or clauses necessary to complete 
the sense and construction of a sentence; as, "He 
loves play better than {lie loves) study." 

Id., p. m. 

264. Parsing is verbal analysis; the naming of 



140 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the several parts of speech, with the relation which 
each word has in the sentence. 

Eng. Gram., Boltwoody p. 150, § 156. 

265. Prosody is that part of grammar which 
treats of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the 
modes in which they are combined in verse. 

Eng. Gram. , QuacJcenboSy p. ^78, art. 71flf.. 

266. Verse is language so arranged in lines that 
syllables of a certain length may occur at certain 
intervals. Id., p. ^78, art. 7^5, 

267. Verse is the form in which poetry generally 
appears. Poetry is distinguished from prose not 
only by this form, but by its containing more fig 
ures, as well as peculiar words and expressions. 

Id., p. 278. 

268. There are two kinds of verse, rhyme, and 
blank verse. Id., p. 278, art. 74-6. 

269. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there 
is a correspondence of sound in the last syllables 
of two or more lines. Id., p. 278, art. 74-7. 

270. Blank verse is metrical language without 
rhyme. Id., p. 278, art. 7^8, 

271. By the quantity of a syllable is meant the 
time required for its utterance. Id., p. 279, art. 749, 

272. A foot is two or more syllables, constituting 
a portion of a line. Id., p. 279, art. 753. 

273. A figure in grammar, is an intentional de- 
viation from the ordinary spelling, formation, con- 
struction, or application of words. 

First Lines of English Gram., Goold Brown, p. 113. 

274. There are figures of orthography, figures of 
etymology, figures of syntax, and figures of rhetoric. 

Id., p. 113. 



GRAMMAR. 141 

275. A figure of orthography is an intentional 
deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a 
word. Id,, p. 113. 

276. A figure of etymology is an intentional de- 
viation from the ordinary formation of a word. 

Id., ]). lis. 

277. A figure of syntax is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary construction of words. 

M.^y. 114,. 

278. A figure of rhetoric is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary application of words. 

Id.y p. 115, 



142 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



gUESTIONS ON UNITED STATES HISTORY. 



1. What is history? 

2. What are the divisions of history? 

3. Define ancient history. 

4. Define modern history. 

5. What is civil history? 

6. What is sacred history? 

7. What is profane history ? 

8. For what is ancient history distinguished? 

9. For what is modern history distinguished? 

10. What can be said of the first inhabitants of 
America? 

11. What race of people followed the Mound 
Builders? 

12. Why were they so named? 

13. Describe the Indian. 

14. Who first suggested the idea of the rotundity 
of the earth? Who coufirmed it? Who resolved to 
prove it? 

15. What was the great and exciting problem of 
the fifteenth century? 

16. Who had excited the people of Europe about 
the Indies? 

17. Why did Columbus wish to sail to India? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 143 

18. Give some account of Columbus's trials and 
his final success. 

19. How many voyages did Columbus make, and 
what lands did he discover in each voyage? 

20. What further can be said of Columbus? 

21. Give an idea of the character of Columbus. 

22. Give an account of his buriah 

23. Why was this country called America? 

24. How many and what nations took an active 
part in exploring North America? 

25. Name the most important Spanish discover- 
ers and explorers. 

26. Give an account of De Leon's discoveries. 

27. What did Balboa discover? 

28. Who discovered Mexico? 

29. Give an account of De Ayllon. 

30. What became of De Ayllon's effort to kidnap 
the natives? 

31. What was the result of De Ayllon's second 
kidnapping expedition? 

32. Give an account of Magellan's explorations. 

33. What of De Soto and his explorations? 
84. Who was Melendez? 

35. What was the real object of the expedition 
of Melendez? 

36. Where did Melendez land and what^did he 
do? 

37. What did Melendez next proceed to do? 

88. Give a summary of Spanish explorations. 

89. Name the most important French discover- 
ers. 

40. Give an account of the explorations of Yer- 
razzani. 



144 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

41. What did James Cartier discover? 

42. I^ame the most important English discover- 
ers and explorers. 

43. Give an account of the discovery of the Cab- 
ots. 

44. This discovery was previous to what other 
important discoveries? 

45. Give an account of the first attempt of the 
English to colonize America. 

46. What did Sir Walter Raleigh do? 

47. Where was the first white child of English 
parents born in America ? 

48. What was her name? 

49. What did Raleigh call the lands he explored? 

50. What did Gosnold explore? 

51. Give an account of the Dutch exploratiojQS ia 
America. 

52. In what year did he make these discoveries? 

53. What was the Spanish claim in America? 

54. Upon whose expedition was it based? 

55. What was the French claim ? 

56. What was the English claim? 

57. Upon what was the English claim based? 

58. How far westward did these claims extend ? 

59. By what right did Spain claim the Pacific 
Coasts 

60. What was the Dutch claim? 

61. During what period in the world's history 
did these discoveries and explorations take place? 

62. What were the only permanent settlements 
at the close of the sixteenth century? 

63. Name five of the first permanent settlements 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 145 

made in the New World, at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. 

• 64. What inducements led Europeans to come to 
America? 

65. What important event transpired April 10, 
1606? 

6Q. What was the London company? 

67. What territory was granted to this com- 
pany? 

68. Of whom was the Plymouth company com- 
Dosed ? 

69. What right was granted to this company? 

70. What settlement did the London company 
make? 

71. What special importance is attached to this 
settlement? 

72. What was the character of the Virginia col- 
onists? 

73. What was their success? 

74. What distinguished man was among the first 
settlers ? 

75. What did John Smith do for the colony? 

76. What great story is told of John Smith? 

77. When and where was the first legislative as- 
sembly ever held in America? 

78. When was slavery first introduced into the 
colonies? 

79. When were the Navigation Acts passed? 

80. What was the purpose of these acts? 

81. Explain the system of these acts. 

82. What was the eff'ect of these laws? 

83. What took place in 1676 ? 
10 



146 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

84. "What was the cause of Bacon's rebellion? 

85. "What happened during this rebellion ? 

86. Where was the first permanent 'New England 
settlement made? 

87. How did the New England states get their 
name? 

88. When and by whom was Connecticut settled? 

89. Where did they commence their first settle- 
ments? 

90. By whom was Rhode Island settled ? 

91. By whom was the first settlement in New 
Hampshire made ? 

92. Who made the first settlement in Maine? 

93. From what did the early colonies greatly 
Bufiter ? 

94. What conduct and outrages led to the atti- 
tude of the Indians toward the colonists? 

95. What missionary heroes worked among the 
Indians ? 

96. What may be said of the colonists with re- 
gard to education? 

97. When was Harvard University founded? 

98. When and where was William and Marj 
College founded ? 

99. When was Yale College founded? 

100. When was Dartmouth College founded? 

101. By whom was ITew York settled? 

102. Where did they commence their settlement? 

103. What took place in the year 1664? 

104. IS'ame the Dutch o:overnors of New York in 
the order of their reign. 

105. By whom was Delaware settled? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. ' 147 

106. Where did they commence their first settle- 
ment? 

107. What transpired in a few years after their 
settlement ? 

108. By whom was Maryland settled ? 

109. Why did they leave England? 

110. Where did they land? 

111. Give an account of the government of Lord 
Baltimore. 

112. To whom does the honor of having first es- 
tablished religious freedom in America belong? 

118. By whom was Pennsylvania settled? 

114. When did they arrive in this country? 

115. Where did they commence a settlement? 

116. What can be said of William Penn's behav- 
ior to the Indians? 

117. Explain what is meant by Mason and Dix- 
on's line. 

118. By whom was North Carolina settled? 

119. Where did they commence a settlement? 

120. When was South Carolina settled? 

121. What was introduced into this country in 
the year 1700? 

122. When and by whom was Georgia settled ? 

123. Why was it called Georgia? 

124. From what nation were the great mass of 
the settlers of the U. S.? 

125. What other nations were represented? 

126. Where were these different nationalities 
found in the colonies? 

127. In what were the settlers of New England 
engaged ? 



148 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

128. In what were the settlers of the Middle 
States engaged? 

129. In what were the settlers of Virginia and 
Maryland engaged? 

130. In what were the settlers of Carolina and 
Georgia engaged ? 

131. What was the most commercial colony? 

132. What was the most commercial town? 

133. Why had Virginia no large towns? 

134. How was trade carried on ? 

135. What was used instead of currency? 

136. In what money were accounts kept? 

137. When was the Federal currency adopted? 

138. State something of the manners and cus- 
toms of the early settlers. 

139. What religious beliefs existed in the colo- 
nies? 

140. Give an account of the religious persecu- 
tions. 

141. Under what dominion were the colonies? 

142. What kinds of government were there? 

143. Describe the commercial corporation. 

144. Describe proprietary government. 

145. Give examples of proprietary government, 

146. Describe royal government. 

147. Give examples of royal government. 

148. Describe charter government. 

149. Describe voluntary association. 

150. Name two strange delusions in colonial his- 
tory. 

151. When was the printing press introduced 
into America? 

152. Who was the first American editor? 



UNITED STATES HISTOKY. 149 

153. Who were the founders of American liter- 
ature ? 

154. What part had the pulpit to do in the edu- 
cation of the colonial times? 

155. When were post-offices first established in 
the colonies? 

156. What great men did the colonial times pro- 
duce? 

157. What was the population of the colonies at 
the close of the colonial period? 

158 i^ame the inter-colonial wars. 

159. What was the cause of King William's war? 

160. When did the war begin and when did it 
close ? 

161. What was the cause of Queen Anne's war? 
162; Give the dates of this war. 

163. By what treaty was it ended? What was 
the result of the war? 

164. What was the cause of King George's war? 

165. What was the principal event in America? 

166. Give the dates of this war. 

167. What was the result of this war? 

168. What was the cause of the French and In- 
dian war? 

169. Between what nations was the war fought? 

170. What was this ^var called in Europe? 

171. Name the principal events of this war. 

172. Who were the principal commanders in 
this war ? 

173. Give the dates of this war. 

174. What were the terms of the treaty? 

175. What were the causes of the Revolutionary 
War? 



150 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

176. What were the writs of assistance ? 

177. What was the stamp act ? 

178. When was the Boston port bill passed? 

179. What was the mutiny act? 

180. When and where was the first colonial con- 
gress held ? 

181. When was the first continental congress 
held ? 

182. Of what did it consist? 

183. What did this congress do? 

184. Who were the officers of this congress ? 

185. What parties existed in America at the 
breaking out of the Revolution ? 

186. Give an account of the second continental 
congress. 

187. For what is the 4th of July, 1776, memora- 
ble? 

188. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 

189. What famous foreigners assisted the Ameri- 
cans in the Revolution. 

190. When were "The Stars and Stripes" 
adopted as the emblem of our nationality? 

191. Give an account of the treason of Benedict 
Arnold. 

192. ]!Tame the most important battles of the 
Revolution, with dates, results and commanders. 

193. When was the treaty of peace concluded ? 

194. What were the terms of the treaty? 

195. What important measure was adopted by 
Congress in 1777? 

196. What were the defects in the articles of 
confederation ? / 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 151 

197. When was the Constitution of the United 
States adopted? 

198. What two political parties were in existence 
at this time? 

199. What were the principles of these two par- 
ties? 

200. Who were the leaders of these parties ? 

201. Kame the different places where the Con- 
tinental Congress met. 

202. When did the first trouble arise in reference 
to slavery? 

203. What did each section claim? 

204. What compromise was effected ? 

205. Who exercised this power? 

206. Who was chosen first president of the Uni- 
ted States ? When and by whom ? 

207. Name the most important events of Wash- 
ington's administration. 

208. Give the history of the seats of our govern- 
ment. 

209. Give a short history of the District of Co- 
lumbia. 

210. Who was chosen president after Washing- 
ton ? 

211. What do you know about him ? 

212. Name the most important events of Adams's 
administration. 

213. Define the text of the Alien and Sedition 
laws. 

214. Give an account of the presidential election 
of 1800. 

215. What do you know of the character of 
Thomas Jefferson? 



152 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

216. What were the important events of Jeffer- 
son's administration ? 

217. Give an account of the election of James 
Madison. 

218. What were the principal events of Madison's 
administration ? 

219. Give a brief account of the Indian war. 

220. What jvas the cause of the war in 1812? 

221. What were the principal engagements of 
this war? 

222. When and where was the treaty of peace 
made? 

223. What is said of this treaty? 

224. Give an account of the next presidential 
election. 

225. IlTame the important events of Monroe's ad- 
ministration. 

226. Define the Monroe Doctrine. 

227. What was the Missouri Compromise ? 

228. Give a sketch of the two great parties now 
in power. 

229. Who were the champions of these parties? 

230. What was the result of the election of 1824? 

231. What were the events of John Quincy Ad- 
ams's administration? 

232. What of the presidential election of 1828? 

233. What were the important events of Jack- 
son's administration? 

234. What can you say of the presidential elec- 
tion of 1836? 

235. What were the events of Van Buren's ad- 
ministration ? 

236. Who was elected President in 1840? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 153 

237. What was the meaning of the election? 

238. Give an account of the death of President 
Harrison. 

239. Who then became President? 

240. Name the events of these administrations. 

241. What was the issue of the campaign of 1844? 

242. Who was elected President? 

243. What was the cause of the war with Mex- 
ico? 

244. JS'ame four or live of the principal battles 
of this war. 

245. What is there remarkable about the battles 
of this war? 

246. Who were the most noted commanders on 
both sides? 

257. What treaty formally ended the Mexican 
war? 

248. Statie the territory ceded by this treaty to 
the United States. 

249. What other events transpired during Polk'a 
administration? 

250. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 

251. Who were candidates for the presidency in 
the election of 1848? 

252. What were the principles of the Free-soil- 
ers? 

253. Who was elected? 

254. When did Taylor die? 

255. Who then became President? 

256. What were the events of this administra- 
tion ? 

257. Give an account of the admittance of Cali- 
fornia into the Union. 



154 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

258. What compromise measure passed Con- 
gress ? 

259. What were the provisions of the Omnibus 
Bill? 

260. What was the question at issue in the cam- 
paign of 1852 ? 

261. Who were the candidates? 

262. Who was elected? 

263. What were the events of this administration ? 

264. What was the Gadsden purchase? 

265. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill ? 

266. What was this doctrine called? 

267. What was the result of this bill? 

268. When did it become a law ? 

269. What did it bring about? 

270. What new party came into existence in 
1853? 

271. What were the principles of this party? 

272. What new party was organized out of the 
Free-soilers? 

273. AVhat principle did the Democrats advocate? 

274. What candidates were put in the field? 

275. What were the events of Buchanan's ad- 
ministration ? 

276. What was the "Dred-Scott" decision? 

277. Into how many parties were the people di- 
vided in 1860, and who was elected president? 

278. What immediate efiect did the election have 
in South Carolina? 

279. What other States followed the lead of 
South Carolina? 

280. Give a sketch of the formation of the new 
government. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 155 

281. What may be given as the causes of the 
civil war ? 

282. What was the policy of Abraham Lincoln ? 

283. When and where was the first gun of tlie 
rebellion fired ? 

284. What was remarkable about this contest? 

285. When and where was the first blood shed? 

286. What can you say of the flags of the two 
nations? 

287. ^ame the states that formed the Southern 
Confederacy. 

288. iTame some of the most important battles 
won by the confederates. 

289. Name some of the most important battles 
won by the federals. 

290. IS'ame the hard fought battles in which 
neither army was successful. 

291. What virtually closed the civil war? 

292. What occurred five days after Lee's sur- 
render? 

293. Who now became president?* 

294. What political questions came up for con- 
sideration ? 

295. What important events occurred during 
Johnson's administration ? 

296. What was the cost of the war? 

297. Who was the next president? 

298. JN'ame the most important events of Grant's 
administration. 

299. Name the events of Grant's second adminis- 
tration. 

300. Who was elected president in 1876? 



156 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

301. Mention the events of Hayeses administra- 
tion 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

302. Name the presidents who served two terms. 

303. JSTame the presidents who died in office. 

304. What administrations were troubled with 
wars ? 

305. What presidents did the Federal party elect ? 

306. The Old Republican party? 

307. The Democratic party? 

308. The New Republican party? 

309. What presidents were elected without op- 
position ? 

310. J^ame some of our most eminent inventors. 

311. Who was our most eminent literary, politi- 
cal and scientific writer? 

312. ]Srame our distinguished metaphysician. 

313. Our lexicographers. 

314. Xame our mathematicians. 

315. Our naturalists. 

316. Oar novelists. 

317. Our historians. 

318. Oar poets. 

319. Our journalists. 

320. Our sculptors. 

321. Our painters. 

322. Our orators. 

323. What territory belonged to the United 
States when it began its existence as a nation ? 

324. What country w^as organized as the North- 
west Territory f 

325. What States have been carved out of this 
territory ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 157 

326. What was the Southwest Territory f 

327. What States have been formed from it? 

328. Was Maine one of the thirteen original 
States ? 

329. Was Vermont? 

330. Give the early history of Maine. 

331. Give the early history of Vermont. 

332. What States and Territories have been 
formed out of the Louisiana purchase? 

333. Give the early history of Florida. 

334. What region was long known as Oregon ? 

335. Upon what grounds did the United States 
claim it? 

336. Give the early history of Texas. 

337. By what name was Alaska formerly known? 

338. How did the United States acquire this ter- 
ritory ? 

339. From what comes the real glory of a nation ? 



158 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON U, S. HISTORY. 



1. The word history is of Greek origin, signify- 
ing in that language a learning or knowing by in- 
quiry, and in English a record of past events. 

Gilman^s Geyieral History^ p. 1. 

2. History is divided into ancient and modern ; 
which is also divided in civil, sacred and profane. 

A Catechism of the History of the U. S., p. 9. 

3. Ancient history is an account of all events 
that have taken place from the creation of the 
world to the birth of Christ. Id.^ p. 9, 

4. Modern history embraces an account of all 
events from the birth of Christ until the present 
time. Id., p. 9. 

5. Civil history is an account of the rise, con- 
tinuance, and fall of empires, kingdoms, and states. 

Id., p. 9. 

6. Sacred history is that which is contained in 
the Sacred Scriptures. Id., p. 10. 

7. Profane history is properly the history of 
fabulous gods, and heroes of antiquity. Id., p. 10. 

8. Ancient history is distinguished for the rise 
and fall of the four great empires : Assyria, Persia, 
Greece and Tiome. Id.^ p. 10. 

9. Modern history is distinguished for the in- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 159 

vention of gunpowder, the art of printing, and the 
discovery of America. Id., p. 10. 

10. The first inhabitants of America are un- 
known. The name given them is Mound-Builders, 
owino^ to the f]:reat mounds and earth-works to l)e 
found in different parts of the country, of which 
the Indians have no traditions. 

Taylor's U. S. Hist., p. 18. 

11. The Indians. Id., p. 18. 

12. Columbus named them " Indians," because 
he thought the Island he had found was a part of 
India, or Eastern Asia. 

Swinton's First Lcs. in Our Country's Hist.,j). ^8. 

13. The Indian is tall, straight and well propor- 
tioned. His skin is of a copper brown; his hair 
long, black and coarse. They were uncivilized, 
had no written books, no well organized society, 
or arts, or manufactures, or agriculture. They 
lived mainly by hunting and fishing, and cultiva- 
ting patches of Indian corn, beans, potatoes aiid 
melons. Their great delight was in war and the 
chase. They lived in rude huts called wigwams, 
and their dress was the skin of wild beasts. 

The arts of the whites greatly injured them. 
The guns which they got from the whites only 
made them reckless in their destruction of game, 
and rendered their petty wars more frequent and 
more bloody. The rum of the white man turned 
them into brutes. 

The cottons and calicoes which the}' learned to 
use in place of their own furs and deer-skins, 
caused sickness and consumption. Id., pp. ^9, SO. 



160 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

14. ToscanelH, Sir John Mandeville, Christopher 
Columbus. 

Taylor's Brief History of the American People, pp. 
^7, 28. 

15. The great problem of the fifteenth century 
was to find a near route to India. Id., p. 27. 

16. Marco Polo, a Venetian, had traveled to the 
east, and returned with wonderful accounts of the 
riches of Cathay and the Islands of Cipango, called, 
generally, the East Indies, and now known to be 
China and Japan. 

Willard's United States History; p. 22. 

17. Since the route at that time to this rich coun- 
try of spices, silks, pearls and gold was overland 
by caravans, dangerous and expensive, Columbus 
thought it would be a great thing if he could go to 
India all the way by sea. Columbus was also a 
deeply religious man, and he longed greatly to 
bring the unknown barbarous nations of the far 
East to a knowledge of the Christian faith. 
Biointon's First Lessons in Our Country's History, 

p. 4,. 

18. Columbus being too poor to fit out an expe- 
dition himself, first applied to his own countrymen 
for aid, and then to the king of Portugal. He next 
turned to Spain, and in the meantime sent his 
brother to England, but these people had no time 
to listen to a poor sailor at whom everybody 
laughed, and the children mocked him as he passed 
in the streets. Success came at last. Eighteen 
years had now passed since he conceived his great 
design, seven of which were spent waiting for the 
answer of Ferdinand. Saddened by his continual 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 161 

failures, he was leaving Spain, begging a little food 
at convent doors, and resolving to apply to the 
king of France. At a lonely mountain pass he was 
overtaken by a messenger from the queen, Isabella, 
asking him to return to the capital. 

Urged by a desire to spread the Catholic faith 
throughout the world, and to see Spain the mistress 
of lands in Asia, the queen had changed her mind. 
To the coUI objections of Ferdinand she nobly an- 
swered, "I undertake the enterprise for my crown 
of Castile, and will pledge my jewels to raise the 
necessary funds." 

Taylor's Brief Hist, of the American People, p. 29. 

19. Four. In his first voyage Columbus discov- 
ered Guanahani, to which he gave the name of San 
Salvador — the Spanish words for Holy Savior. In 
his second voyage he discoverd the Winward Isles, 
Jamaica and Porto Rico. In his third voyage he 
discovered the Island of Trinidad, and the mainland 
of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. 
In his fourth voyage he visited the places which he 
had previously discovered, and made some explo- 
rations along: the south side of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Ridpath's School History, p. 17. 

20. Columbus never dreamed that he had discov- 
ered a new continent, and died supposing that he 
had opened a new route to Asia. Ilis later years 
were saddened by persecution and neglect, and he 
died in poverty and obscurity, at Valladolid, Spain, 
May 20, 1506, in the seventy-first year of his age. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. IS. 

21. Columbus was a man of commanding pres- 
11 



162 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ence. In character he was one of the greatest souls 
that ever lived. He was a man of lofty intellect, 
of wonderful enthusiasm, and of a deep religious 
nature. Swinton's Condensed Hist, of the U. S.p.6. 

22. His remains were carried to Seville; after- 
wards they were removed to San Domingo, and in 
1796 to the cathedral at Havana, -svhere they now 
rest. Id., p, 6. 

23. The country was called America from Amer- 
icus Vespucius, who sailed to the new world on a 
voyage of discovery after Columbus had reached 
the continent; Americus explored still farther the 
new regions, and on his return to Spain, published 
an account of his discovery, and the country in 
consequence received from him the name of Amer- 
ica. Hist, of the U. S., Kerney, p. llf,. 

24. The four powers which took an active part 
in exploring North America were Spain, England, 
France and Holland. Taylor's Model Hist., p. S2, 

25. Columbus, Vespucci, De Leon, Balboa, Gri- 
jalvah, De Ayllon, De Narvaez, Magellan, De Soto, 
and Melendez. Hist. U. S., Henry, pp. 2 4, 25, 

26. Ponce de Leon (pon'-tha-da-la-on') was a gal- 
lant soldier, but an old man, and in disgrace. He 
coveted the glory of conquest to restore his tar- 
nished reputation, and, besides, he had heard of a 
magical fountain in this fairy land, where one 
might bathe and be young again. He accordingly 
equipped an expedition, and sailed in search of this 
fabled treasure. On Easter Sunday (Pascna Flor- 
ida, in Spanish), 1512, he came in sight of a land 
gay with spring flowers. In honor of the day, he 
called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, and 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 163 

landed here and there, but returned home at last, an 
old man still, having found neither youth, gold, nor 
glory. Barnes's Brief Hist, U. S. , pp. '26, 27, 

27. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, Sept. 
26, 1513, while ascending the mountains of the 
Isthmus of Panama. 

School History of the U. S., Henry, p. 16, 

28. Mexico was discovered by Grijalvah, (gre- 
haur-vah), in 1518. Id., p. 16. 

29. In 1520, Vasquez de Ayllon, (vas'-keth-da 
al'-yon), a wealthy Spaniard, undertook an expedi- 
tion to America, and, landing on the present coast 
of South Carolina, decoyed a number of natives on 
board his fleet, and steered for home, intending to 
sell them in Europe as slaves. Id., p. 16. 

30. Three of the vessels were wrecked, and most 
of the Indians were drowned. Id., p. 18. 

31. De Ayllon w^as honorably received by his 
government, and was sent on another kidnapping 
expedition ; but this was unsuccessful, resulting in 
De Ayllon's pecuniary ruin. Thus ended the first 
attempt to enslave the Indians, who, thenceforth, 
lost all confidence in Spanish honor. Id., p. 18. 

32. Magellan was the first European to sail upon 
the Pacific (1519). On account of its calm and 
peaceful appearance when first traversed, he gave 
it the name Pacific. He was also the first that 
sailed around the world (1519-21). Id., p. 16. 

33. De Soto explored the interior of the Southern 
States, discovering the Mississippi river, 1541. 

Swinton s Condensed U. S. History, p. 23. 

34. In 1565, the king of Spain, — the bigoted 
Philip II., — sent Pedro Melendez (me-len'-deth), 



164 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

"a soldier of ferocious disposition and criminal 
practices," to colonize Florida. 

School History of the U, S., Henry, pp, 18, 19, 

35. The real object of this expedition was to 
break up and destroy a colony of French Protes- 
tants, called Huguenots, who the year before, had 
made a settlement near the mouth of the St. John's 
river, territory claimed by Spain. Id.^ ^. 19. 

36. Melendez, with his men, landed on the north- 
eastern shore, near the mouth of a small river, on 
St. Augustine's day (2d of September). Here he 
laid the foundation of the town of St. Augustine 
(Sept., 1565), the oldest settlement, by forty-two 
years, within the United States. Id., p. 19. 

37. Melendez next turned his attention to the 
Huguenots, whom he found and attacked. The 
Huguenots put to sea in their vessels, but a furious 
storm arose and dashed to pieces every ship in the 
fleet. Most of them, however, reached the shore. 
Here they were attacked by the forces of Melendez ; 
and men, women and children were alike butch- 
ered, — only a few escaping. Id., p. 19. 

38. The Spaniards, having planted themselves on 
the great islands they first discovered, pushed out 
in different directions to the mainland. They soon 
overran Central America, Mexico and Peru. Within 
the present limits of the United States they were 
also active: 1. Florida, a vast and undefined re- 
gion, was partially explored; 2. The Mississippi 
was discovered ; 3. New Mexico was explored ; 4. 
St. Augustine and Santa Fe' were founded; 5. The 
coast of California was examined for many leagues. 

Smaller School Hist, of the U, S., Harper, p. 9. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 165 

39. Verrazzani and Cartier. 

Anderson's Gram. School, United States, p. 18, 

40. Verrazzani {pa-rat-tsah' ne), a Florentine, was 
sent out by the French king, in the year 1524, in 
command of an exploring expedition. He lirst 
touched the coast at North Carolina, and explored 
as far north as Newfoundland. It is believed that 
he entered the harbors of New York and Newport. 
Verrazzani's voyage was the foundation of the 
French claim in America. 

Harper's History of the U. S., p. 10. 

41. In 1534, James Cartier, (kar-te-ah'), sent out 
by the king of France, discovered and explored the 
Gulf and the River of St. Lawrence. 

School Hist, of the U. S., Henry, pp. 19, W. 

42. The Cabots, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, Bartholomew Gosnold, 
Martin Pring and George Waymouth. Id., p. 25. 

43. The Cabots discovered Labrador (1497) ; and 
Sebastian Cabot, in a second voyage, sailed along 
the coast from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay (1498). 

Gram. School Hist, of the U. S., Anderson, p. 18. 

44. This was one year before Columbus discov- 
ered South America, and two years before Vespucci 
visited the continent. 

School History of the U. S., Henry, p 21. 

45. The first attempt of the English to colonize 
America was made by the brave Sir Humphrey Gil- 
bert, who, under authority of Queen Elizabeth, 
endeavored to establish a settlement at New Found- 
land (1583). The enterprise was unsuccessful. 

Id., p. n. 

46. Raleigh sent an expedition to North Caro- 



166 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

lina (1584) : and made two attempts to found a col- 
ony (1585, 1587). 

Anderson's Gram. School Hist., p. 18. 

47. The first white child of English parents iu 
America was born at the temporary settlement on 
the island of Roanoke, in 1587. 

Henry's School Hist. U. S., p. ^1, 

48. Her name was Virginia Dare. Id., p. 21. 

49. Kaleigh called the lands he explored, Vir- 
ginia, in honor of Elizabeth, who was called the 
Virgin Queen. Id., p. 21. 

50. Gosnold explored the coast of Massachusetts 
(1602). Gram. School Hist., Anderson, p. 18. 

51. The Dutch made a single expedition under 
Henry Hudson, who discovered and explored the 
Hudson river, and traversed the coast northward 
to Hudson Bay. 

Model School Hist., Taylor, pp. 31^, 35, 

52. In 1609. 

Swinton's Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 19. 

53. The Spanish claim of Florida stretched north- 
ward without any definite limits. 

Harper s School History of the U. S., p. 17, 

54. It was chiefly based on the expedition of De 
Leon. Id., p, 17, 

55. The French claim, under the name of ISTew 
France, extended from New York to Labrador, 
and was founded on the voyage of Verrazzani. Dur- 
ing the following century it was extended to the 
great lakes and the entire Mississippi Valley. 

Id., p. 17, 

56. The English claim of Virginia stretched from 
Florida as far as Labrador. Id., p, 17, 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 167 

57. It was based on the voyages of the Cabots. 

Id., p. 17. 

58. All these three nations chiimed westward to 
the Pacific Ocean. Id.^ p. 17. 

59. S[tain claimed the Pacific Coast by explora- 
tion. 7c/., p. 17. 

60. The Dutch cUxim, named New Netherland, 
in the year 1614 was based on Hudson's discovery, 
and extended from the 40th to the 45th degree 
north latitude. Id., pp. 17, 18. 

61. These explorations had lasted during the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. 

Barnes's Brief History of the U. S., p. Ifi. 

62. At. the close of the sixteenth century, the 
only permanent settlements were those of tlje 
Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa Fe'. 

Id., p 40. 

63. (1) The French at Port Royal, K S., 1605. 
• (2) The English at Jamestown, 1607. 

(3) The French at Quebec, 1608. 

(4) The Dutch at New York, 1613. 

(5) The English Puritans at Plymouth, 1620. 

Id., p. 40. 

64. The principal inducements that first led 
Europeans to come to America were : the hope of' 
finding a western passage to India ; eagertiess to 
amass sudden fortunes by conquest or mining ; cu- 
riosity and love of adventure ; the prospect of profit 
from the Newfoundland fisheries, and from trade 
in train-oil, walrus tusks, bear skins, and beaver 
skins; zeal to convert heathen peoples to Chris- 
tianity, and the design of planting colonies. 

Venahle's United States History, pp. I4,, 15* 



168 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOKT. 

65. April 10, 1606, was an important day for the 
western continent. On that day the king of Eng- 
land issned two great patents to men of that conn- 
try, authorizing them to possess and colonize most 
of that portion of I^orth America lying hetween the 
thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude, and 
extending from ocean to ocean. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. 39. 

QQ. The London Company was an association com- 
posed of nobles, gentlemen, and merchants residing 
in London. Id., p. Jf.0. 

67. To this company was granted the territory 
lying betwe,en the thirty-fourth and thirty-eighth 
degrees — from Cape Fear to the Potomac. 

Id., p. 4.0. 

68. The Plymouth Company was composed of 
persons from Plymouth, in the west of England. 

Id., p. 40. 

69. It was granted the exclusive right to plant 
colonies between the forty-first and forty-fifth de- 
grees, from ISTew York city to Halifax. Id., p. 4-0. 

70. In May, 1607, a colony of one hundred and 
five persons, under the auspices of the London 
Company, began the settlement of Jamestown, on 
the James river, in Virginia. 

GampbeWs Concise School Hist. U. S., p. 23. 

71. This was the first permanent English settle- 
ment in America. Id., p. 23. 

72. They were mostly gentlemen by birth, unused 
to labor. They had no families, and came out in 
search of wealth or adventure, expecting, when 
rich, to return to England. 

Brief Hist. U. S,, Barnes, p. 4^- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 169 

73. The climate was unhealthy, and before the 
first autumn half of their number had perished. 

Id,, p. 46. 

74. Captain John Smith. Id., p. 4-6. 

75. John Smith alone saved the colony from 
ruin. First as a member of the council, and after- 
ward as president, his services were invaluable. 
He persuaJed the settlers to erect a fort and build 
log huts for the winter. He made long voyages, 
carefully exploring Chesapeake Bay, securing the 
friendship of the Indians, and bringing back boat- 
loads of supplies. He trained the tender gentle- 
men till they learned how to swing the ax in the 
forest. He declared that " he who would not work, 
might not eat." He taught them that industry 
and self-reliance are the surest guarantees to for- 
tune. Id. J pp. 46, i^7. 

76. A well-known story is related of Smith on 
one of his expeditions. He was captured by the 
Indians and carried before their chief, Powhatan, 
whose headquarters were near the present site of 
Richmond. He was condemned to death, but was 
saved by Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas. It is 
believed that this is a fiction ; but there really was 
such an Indian girl as Pocahontas, and, some years 
after, she married one of the colonists, named John 
Eolfe. Swinton's Condensed U. S. History, p. 32, 

77. In 1619 the first representative assembly ever 
convened in America was held at Jamestown. 

Id., p. 33. 

78. Negro slaves were first brought to Virginia 
in a Dutch man-of-war, in 1620. They were soon 
afterward introduced into all the other colonies. 



170 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

The price of a negro in 'Nqw Amsterdam ranged 
between $125 and $150. 

Quackenbos^s History of the U. S., p. 99. 

79. In 1660 the English Parliament passed cer- 
tain laws called the Navigation Acts. 

Swintoivs Condensed U. S. History^ p. 35. 

80. The purpose of these acts was to give Eng- 
land the entire control of all the trade f)f the col- 
onies. M. p. 35. 

81. The Virginians were not allowed to send 
their products anywhere but to England; they 
were not allowed to buy goods anywhere but in 
England; and everything had to be carried in Eng- 
lish vessels. Id.^ pp. 35, 36. 

82. These laws bore very heavily on Virginia. 
They produced great discontent, and were one of 
the causes of the revolution. Td.^ p. 36. 

83. In 1676, civil war broke out in Virginia. 
This war is known as "Bacon's rebellion." 

Id., p. 36. 

84. The cause of it was ill-feeling which had 
arisen between the people and the aristocratic party 
in Virginia. Id., p. 36. 

85. The country was laid waste, and Jamestown 
burned to the ground; but it was terminated by 
the death of Bacon. Hist. U. S., Keniey, p. 20. 

86. At Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620, by the 
pilgrims. Anderson's Gram. School Hist. U. S., p. 4-9. 

87. In 1614 this section of the country was vis- 
ited by the celebrated Captain Smith, who explored 
the coast, and, on his return to Europe, made a 
map of the country and called it l^ew Etigland. 

Hist. U. S., Kerney, p. W. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 171 

88. In 1636, by a conipari}^ of persons from Mas- 
sachusetts, with their minister, Mr. Hooker. 

Id. , J). 2'3. 

89. At Windsor, Hartford and Weatherstield. 

Id., p. 22. 

90. Rhode Island was settled in 1636, by Roger 
Williams, a clergyman, who was expelled from 
Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions. 

Id., p. 22. 

91. By the Rev. Mr. Wheel right, and a few fol- 
lowers, who were also banished from Massachusetts 
on account of their religion. Id., p. 22. 

92. The first settlement in Maine was made by 
Ferdinand Gorges in 1636. Id., p, 22. 

93. They suffered greatly from the hostilities of 
the Indians. Id., p. 22. 

94. Columbus himself carried a considerable num- 
ber of the natives to Europe, where they were sold 
into slavery. 

Another explorer carried off fifty to the same 
fate. 

Another, having induced the confiding Indians 
to enter his ship, closed the hatchways, spread the 
sails and started for the West Indies. Another 
enticed the king of the Hurons on board his vessel, 
and carried the captive chief to France, where he 
died of loneliness and grief. Their wrongs would 
make a long record of inhumanity. "The entire 
aboriginal population of the West Indies became 
extinct under the iron rule of the Spaniards. '' The 
practice of selling Indians into hondagc in Europe 
continued for nearly two centuries. The news of 
these and other wrongs spread from wigwam to 



172 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

wigwam, from tribe to tribe, till the tales of treach- 
ery and outrage reached the most distant nations 
of North America, and a general distrust of the 
whites spread among the Indians, which led to 
three hundred years border warfare, and which was 
in no wise allayed by the conduct of the colonists 
themselves toward the savages. 

Model School Hist, U. S, Taylor, pp. 6Jf,, 65. 

95. Rev. John Eliot, who was followed by John 
Sargent, David Brainard, David Zeisberger, James 
Marquette, Thomas Mayhew, and others. 

Id,, p, 66. 

96. They took deep interest in the affairs of ed- 
ucation, and at an early period established schools 
and colleges for the education of their children. 

Catechism of U. S, History, Kerney, p. 28, 

97. In the year 1638, at Cambridge. 

Id., p, 24,, 

98. In the year 1693, in Virginia. Id., p. 24,. 

99. In the year 1700, at Saybrook, in Connecti- 
cut. Id., p. 24,. 

100. In the year 1769, at Hanover, New Hamp- 
shire. Id., p. 24. 

101. By a company of Dutch, in the year 1614 

Id., p. 24. 

102. The}^ sailed on the Hudson river, and com- 
menced a settlement near the present city of Al- 
bany; they also commenced another settlement on 
Manhattan Island, where the city of New York 
now stands, and called it New Amsterdam. 

Id., p. 24. 

103. New Amsterdam was conquered by the 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 173 

English, and called New York, in honor of the 
Duke of York, to whom it was granted. 

Id., J). 25. 

104. Peter Minuit, WouterVan Twiller,Sir Wil- 
liam Kieft and Peter Stuyvesant. 

Swiiiton's Condensed U. S History, p. 58. 

105. Delaware was settled by the Swedes and 
Finns, in 1630. 

Catechism of U. S. History, Kerney, f. 25. 

106. !N"ear the entrance of the Delaware Ba}^ 
where the}^ laid the foundation of Lewistown, the 
oldest town in the State. Id., p. 25. 

107. The Swedes and Finns were conquered, and 
their colony subdued by Stuyvesant, the Governor 
of New Netherlands. Id, p. 25. 

108. The settlement of Maryland was commenced 
in 1633, by a colony of Roman Catholics under 
Lord Baltimore, a native of England. 

II, p. 25. 

109. They left England because they were 
greatly persecuted on account of tlieir religion. 

Id., p. 25. 

110. They landed on the shores of the Chesapeake 
Bay, and commenced a settlement at a village which 
they purchased from the Indians, and called St. 
Mary's. Id. p. 25. 

111. The government of Lord Baltimore was es- 
tablished on the most liberal principles. Civil and 
religious liberty were proclaimed; no one was mo- 
lested on account of his religion ; and all were per- 
mitted to worship God according to the dictates of 
their own conscience. Id.., jp. 26. 



174 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

112. To the Roman Catholics of Maryland. 

Id,, p. 26. 

113. By a company of Friends, or Quakers, un- 
der the celebrated William Penn. Id., p. 26. 

114. The first company arrived in the year 1681, 
but Penn himself did not arrive until about a year 
later, with another party. Id., p. 26. 

115. The}^ purchased the land from the natives, 
and commenced a settlement on the Delaware 
river, where the city of Philadelphia now stands 

Id., p. 26. 

116. Penn's behavior to the Indians w^as truly 
noble and Christian-like. Soon after his arrival, 
he made his famous treaty with the Indians. Both 
parties lived up to this treaty; and as long as the 
Quaker control of the colony lasted, which was 
seventy years, there was unbroken harmony be- 
tween the whites and red man. 

Sivinton's Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 67. 

117. The boundary between Pennsylvania and 
Maryland had caused much trouble for many years. 
It was finally settled in 1767, when two surveyors, 
Mason and Dixon, fixed the present boundary. 
The boundary was afterwards known as "Mason 
and Dixon's line." Id., p. 69, art. 206. 

118. In the year 1650, by a colony from Virginia. 

Catechism of U. S. Hist., Kerney, p. 27. 

119. I^ear Albemarle sound. id., p. 27. 

120. In the year 1689, where Charleston now 
stands. Id., p. 27. 

121. In the year 1700 the cultivation of cotton 
and rice was introduced. Id., p. 27. 

122. In the year 1732, by Mr. Oglethorpe, who 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 175 

commenced a settlement where the cicy of Savan- 
nah now stands. Id., p. 27. 

123. It was called Georgia in honor of George the 
Second, at that time king of England. Id., p. 27, 

124. In the year 1750 the great hody of the in- 
habitants ill the colonies were either Ensflish or 
their descendants. 

Harper's School History of (he U. S., p. 54. 

125. The Dutch, French, Scotch, Irish, Swedes 
and Germans. Id., p. S^. 

126. The Dutch were numerous in I^Tew York; 
the French were found in New York and South 
Carolina; the Scotch and Irish, in East Jersey, 
the Carolinas, and Georgia; the Swedes, on the 
Delaware; the Germans, in Pennsylvania and 
North Carolina. Id., p. 54. 

127. In New England the inhabitants were occu- 
pied in farming, lumbering, manufacturing, ship- 
building, and the fisheries. Id., p. 54 

128. In the middle States they were chiefly farm- 
ers. Id., p. 54. 

129. In Virginia and Maryland the principal 
staple was tobacco, and farming was the main 
business. Id., p. 54. 

130. In Carolina and Georgia were the rice 
plantations, near the coast; on the highlands the 
settlers were farmers. Cotton was not yet culti- 
vated to any extent. Id., pp. 54, 55. 

131. The most commercial colony was Massachu- 
setts. Id,, p. 55. 

132. Boston, from the first, was the most active 
of all the towns in shipping. Id., p. 55. 

133. If we examine a map of Virginia, we may 



176 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

notice how many large rivers run into Chesapeake 
Bay. Up these the ships went to the plantations, 
and took away the produce of the planters, leaving 
other things in exchange. This is the reason why 
the colonists of Virginia did not collect in large 
towns. Id.^ p. 65. 

134. The trade of the colonies was, in early 
times, mainly carried on by exchange or barter. 

Id ,p. 55, 

135. In Virginia, for a long time, tobacco was 
used as money; in ISTew England, wampum, made 
of shells; in Kew York, beaver-skins. Id., p. 55. 

136. The currency was English pounds, shillings, 
and pence. Id.yp. 55. 

137. Dollars and cents came in with the Revolu- 
tion. Id.y p. 55. 

138. The mode of life was exceedingly simple. 
The people wore home-spun clothes, and made 
their yarn from the wool of their own sheep. All 
persons were required by law to dress within their 
means. The roads were poor and wheeled vehicles 
were scarce. The food was simple but abundant. 
The houses were mostly log cabins, with small 
windows, and chimneys made of sticks and clay 
plaster. The furniture was generally very simple 
and plain. 

Model School History, Taylor, pp. 72, 73. 

139. The religious belief of the colonists differed 
greatl}^ though nearly the entire population pro- 
fessed Christianity. Maryland, founded by Catho- 
lics, soon had, like the other colonies, a majority 
of Protestants. The Church of England (the Epis- 
copal) prevailed in Virginia and South Carolina. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 177 

In New England, the people were largely Calvin- 
istic in doctrine and Congregational in practice. 
In ISTew York, the Dutch Reformed were supreme. 
The Quaker element predominated in Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware, Rhode Island and New Jersey. 
Roger Williams established at Providence the first. 
Baptist church in America. The French Protest- 
ants (the Huguenots) were found in considerable 
numbers in New York and Carolina. Id., pp. 73, 71^. 

140. A war of sects was waged in several of the 
colonies. The people forgot their ideas of toler- 
ance and religious equality when power came to 
them. "New England Protestants appealed to 
Liberty ; then they closed the door against her." 
It was a sad, strange, picture of life. The Puri- 
tans imprisoned Baptists and executed Quakers. 
The Churchmen in Virginia banished Puritans and 
imprisoned Baptists. The Protestants in Mary- 
land disfranchised the Catholics. But as years 
passed away, a more kind, tolerant spirit prevailed, 
and, long before the end of the colonial period, the 
illiberal sentiment of persecution had passed away. 

Id,, p. 7i, 

141. The thirteen colonies, each and all, from the 
time of their founding down to the Declaration of 
Independence in 1776, were under the dominion of 
the crown of England. 

Swinton^s Condensed U, S. History, p. 84^* 

142. There were several different kinds of gov- 
ernment in the colonies, and various colonies from 
time to time changed their government. The 
kinds of government were : Commercial corpora- 

12 



178 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tion, proprietary, royal, charter, and voluntary as- 
sociation. Id,, p. 84" 

143. The government of a commercial corpora- 
tion, as the London Company, which ruled over 
Virginia in early times. 7c?., p. 8^. 

144. Proprietary government, the rule being un- 
der some proprietor or proprietary to whom the 
king granted the province. Id., p. 84- 

145. Pennsylvania under William Penn, and 
Maryland under Lord Baltimore, are examples of 
proprietary government. Id., p. 8I{.. 

146. lioyal government, or the government of 
the king of England through some royal governor 
appointed by the crown. id., p. 8If,. 

147. Almost all the colonies were, sooner or 
later, under royal government. Id., p. 8/^. 

148. Charter government was the government 
of the colonies by a charter or written instrument, 
given by the king, and granting certain political 
rights and privileges. Id., p. 8Jf,. 

149. There were some colonies founded by the 
people themselves, without the authority of king 
or company or proprietor. This kind of govern- 
ment may be called government by voluntary as- 
sociation. Id., p. 84* 

150. The Salem Witchcraft and the "negro plot" 
of Kew York. Model School History, pp. 4^, 52. 

151. In the year 1639, an English printer named 
Stephen Day, set up at Cambridge the first printing 
press. The first newspaper appeared in 1704, and 
was called the "Boston News-Letter.'' 

Id,, p. 88. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 179 

152. John Campbell was the first American edi- 
tor. Id,, p. 88, 

153. Increase Mather, one of the early presidents 
of Harvard College, and his son, Cotton Mather. 
Cotton Mather's Magnalia, a religions history of 
New England, was the first important book written 
by a native of this country. Id., p. 90. 

154. The pulpit was a great educator of the 
times. Many of the ministers were men of supe- 
rior scholarship, who preached their long, strong 
sermons to congregations of farmers, mechanics, 
and small tradespeople of the district. In many a 
parsonage the Scriptures were read in the original 
languages at the morning and evening worship. 
For two-thirds of a century metaphysical theology 
had held the ascendancy in the ministry; but the 
clergy did not stop with the discussion of dogmas; 
they led and inspired the people; they kept pa- 
triotism aflame; they promoted vital religion; they 
moulded national character. Id., p. 89. 

155. In the year 1693, Parliament voted to estab- 
lish post-ofilces in the colonies, and Thomas Neale 
was authorized to transmit letters and packets " at 
such rates as the planters should agree to give." 

Id., p. 85. 

156. Jonathan Edwards, the theologian; Benja- 
min Franklin, the philosopher and statesman ; 
James Otis and Patrick Henry, the great orators. 

id., pp. 94,, 95. 

157. E'early 3,000,000. 

Swintonh U. S. Hist., p. 90. 

158. I. King William's war; II. Queen Anne's 



180 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

war; III. King George's war; lY. French and 
Indian war. 

Henry^s School Hist. U. S., pp. ^, H, 4^, 

159. King William's war was a contest betweea 
France and England. When James II. was forced 
to abdicate the throne, he fled to France. The 
king of that country lent him an army to assist 
him in his attempts to regain the throne. This 
led to a war between the two countries, which ex- 
tended to their colonies in America. 

Id.y pp. 4^, 4-4" 

160. The war began in 1689, and closed in 1697, 
by the treaty of Ryswick. Id., p. 44- 

161. England, Holland and Germany formed an 
alliance against France in 1701, to prevent the union 
of France and Spain. The war which followed is 
known in English history by the name of " the 
war of the Spanish succession." In this country 
it was called " Queen Anne's war." Id., p. 44- 

162. It began in 1702 and continued till 1713— 
eleven years. Id., p. 44* 

163. It was ended by the treaty of Utrecht. 
Acadia was ceded to England. 

Barnes's Brief History of the U. S.y p. 80. 

164. Disputes arose in Europe about the succes- 
sion to the Austrian throne, and France and Eng- 
land took opposite sides-. Harper^ s U. 8. Hist, p. 37 » 

165. The principal event in America was the 
capture of the strong French fortress of Louisburg, 
on Cape Breton Island. Id., p. 38, 

166. The war began in 1744 and ended in 1748 
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in Prussia. 

Id,, p. 88. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 181 

167. Louisbiirg, the capture of which had cost 
the colonies so much effort, was restored to France. 

Id., p. 38, 

168. Jealousy and envy on account of their re- 
spective possessions in America were the chief 
causes of the war. 

Heiiry^s School History of the U. S., p, 4,5, 

169. Between England and her colonies, with a 
few Indians, on the one side, and France and her 
colonies, largely aided by the Indians, on the other. 

Anderson's Gram. School, U. S. History, p. 54- 

170. The seven years war. 

CamphelVs School Hist, of the U. S., p. 61, 

171. Washington's journey across the Alleghe- 
nies, battle of the Great Meadows, Braddock's de- 
feat, capture of Louisburg, battle of Lake George, 
capture of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, capture 
of Niagara and Quebec. 

Henry's School Hist, of the U. S., pp. 46, 47, 48. 

172. English, Braddock, Amherst, Wolfe, Aber. 
crombie and Washington; French, Dieskau and 
Montcalm. Id., pp. 46, 47, 48. 

173. This war broke out in 1754, and closed by 
the treaty of Paris, 1763. Id., pp. 45, 48. 

174. France ceded to Great Britain all her Amer- 
ican possessions east of the Mississippi, and north 
of the Iberville river, in Louisiana. At the same 
time Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. 

Anderson's U. S. History, p. 63. 

175. The isolated position of America, the ten- 
dency of her governments and anti-monarchial in- 
stitutions, the prevailing customs and opinions of 
her self-reliant people, inevitably destined her for 



182 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

a separate national existence. Causes less natural 
hastened severance from the mother country. 
Among these causes were unjust legislation in Eng- 
land, and despotic administration of British officials 
in the colonies. 

U, S. History, Venahle, jp, 90, art. 112, 

176. Writs of assistance were granted, empower- 
ing the holder to invade any one's premises and 
search for contraband goods. Id., p. 91. 

177. The " Stamp Act," passed in 1765, requir- 
ing a heavy duty to be paid upon all legal docu- 
ments, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. 

Henry^s School History of the U. S.,p. 5Jf 

178. The "Boston Port Bill" passed in 1774, 
efiectually destroying the business of New England 
merchants. Id,, p. 54- 

179. The " Mutiny Act," passed in 1774, requir- 
ing the colonists to provide quarters and supplies 
for British troops stationed among them. 

Id., p. S4" 

180. The Colonial Congress met in October, 1765, 
at 'New York, and agreed on a "Declaration of 
rights and grievances of the colonies." A petition 
to the king and memorials to both houses of Par- 
liament were also prepared and adopted. 

Harper^ s School Hist. U. S., p. 81. 

181. The first Continental Congress was held at 
Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. 

Henry's School Hist, of U. S.y p. 56 » 

182. It consisted of talented and influential men 
from all the colonies, except Georgia. Id., p. 66. 

183. It issued a protest against standing armies 
being kept in the colonies without consent of the 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 183 

people, and agreed to hold no intercourse with 
Great Britain. Id., 'p. 56. 

184. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was chosen 
president, and Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania, 
secretary. Harper's School Hist. U. S. , p. 84- 

185. Two parties had arisen, Whigs and Tories, 
the latter friends to Parliament and the king. 

U. S. Hist, Venable, p 97, 

186. May 10, 1775, the second Continental Con- 
gress convened at Philadelphia. That body de- 
cided to raise an army of twenty thousand men ; 
and, on the 15th of June, by a unanimous vote, 
elected George Washington commander-in-chief of 
"the forces raised or to be raised in defense of 
American liberties." 

Anderson's U. 8. Hist., p. 71. 

187. On the 4th of July, 1776, congress passed 
the famous Declaration of Independence from Great 
Britain forever. Harper's School History, p. 94-. 

188. The great man who wrote this Declaration 
was Thomas Jefierson, of Virginia, assisted by 
Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania ; Roger Sher- 
man, of Connecticut; Robert R. Livingston, of 
New York, and John Adams, of Massachusetts. 

Id., p. 94. 

189. Through the commissionership of Franklin, 
secret aid in the form of loans and war stores w^as 
obtained from France. A number of foreign pa- 
triots volunteered their services to aid the cause of 
American independence. Among those that, during 
the war, rendered valuable services as officers were 
the German barons John De Kalb and Frederick 
Steuben, the Poles Thaddeus Kosciusko and Count 



184 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Casimir Pulaski, and especially the French Marquis 
de La Fayette. Venable's U. S. Hist, p. 105. 

190. ^^The Stars and Stripes "—the prettiest flag 
in the world — was adopted as the emblem of our 
nationality, June 14, 1777. The 13 stripes, 7. red 
and 6 white, alternating, represent the Thirteen 
Original States, and an additional star is placed 
upon it for every new State. Thirty-eight stars 
now spangle its blue fold. 

Henry^s School History of U. S., p. 63. 

191. In September, 1780, the treason of Benedict 
Arnold was discovered. This man, an unsuccess- 
ful horse-dealer in Connecticut, had entered the 
army at the beginning of the war, and had gained 
much credit on the expedition to Quebec in 1775. 
He was now discontented, and offered to betray 
West Point, of which, by a display of patriotism, 
he had gained command. Major John Andre, who 
was the agent of communication between General 
Clinton and Arnold, was captured and the plan 
exposed. Arnold escaped to England, but Andre 
was hung as a spy at Tappan, N. Y., October 2d. 

Gilman^s General History ^ p. 3Jf7. 

192. 1. Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775; 
Americans victorious. Maj. Pitcairn commanded 
British; Americans had no commander. 2. Cap- 
ture of Ticonderoga by Americans, May 10, 1775. 
Allen and Arnold commanded Americans ; Dela- 
place, the British. 3. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 
17, 1775 ; Aniericans defeated. Col. Prescott com- 
manded Americans; Gen. Howe, the British. 4. 
Attack on Quebec, December 31, 1775; Americans 
defeated. Montgomery and Arnold commanded 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 185 

Americans; Carleton, the British. 5. Evacuation 
of Boston by the British, March 17, 1776. Wash- 
ington commanded Americans; Gen. Howe, the 
British. 6. Battle of Long Island, August 27, 
1776 ; Americans defeated. Washington commanded 
Americans; Gens. Howe and Clinton, the British. 
7. Battle of White Plains, Oct. 28, 1776 ; Americans 
defeated. Washington commanded Americans; 
Gen. Howe, the British. 8. Battle of Trenton, 
Dec. 25, 1776; Americans victorious. Washington 
commanded Americans; Col. Rahl, the Hessians. 
9. Battle of Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777 ; Americans 
victorious. Washington commanded Americans ; 
Cornwallis, the British. 10. Battle of Bennington, 
Aug. 10, 1777; Americans victorious. Gen. Stark 
commanded Americans; CoL Baum, the British. 
11. Battle of the Brandj^vine, Sept. 17, 1777 ; Amer- 
icans defeated. Washington commanded Ameri- 
cans; Cornwallis and Clinton, the British. 12. 
Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4, 1777; Americans 
defeated. Washington commanded Americans; 
Gen. Howe, the British. 13. First Battle of Sara- 
toga, Sept. 19, 1777; Americans victorious. Gen. 
Gates commanded Americans; Gen. Burgoyne, the 
British. 14. Second Battle of Saratoga, Oct. 7, 
1777; Americans victorious. General Gates com- 
manded Americans; Gen. Burgoyne, the British. 
15. Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778; neither 
army victorious. Washington commanded Amer- 
icans ; Gen. Clinton, the British. 16. Massacre of 
Wyoming, July 3, 1778, by Tories and Indians. 
Butler and Brandt conducted the slaughter. 17. 
Massacre at Cherry Valley, Fov. 17, 1778, by To- 



186 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ries and Indians. Butler and Brandt conducted the 
slaughter. 18. Capture of Stony Point, July 25, 
1779, by the Americans; Gen. Wayne commanded 
Americans; Col. Johnson, the British. 19. Attack 
on Savannah, Sept., 1779; Americans repulsed. 
Lincoln and D'Estaing commanded Americans and 
French ; Prevost, the British. 20. Paul Jones's 
[N'aval Battle, Sept. 23, 1779 ; Americans victorious. 
Paul Jones commanded Americans ; Pearson, the 
British. 21. Capture of Charleston, May 12, 1780, 
by the British. Gen. Lincoln commanded Amer- 
icans; Gen. Cornwallis, the British. 22. Battle of 
Camden, Ma}^ 12, 1780; Americans defeated. Gen. 
Gates commanded Americans; Cornwallis, the 
British. 23. Battle of King's Mountain, October 
7, 1780; Americans victorious. Campbell and 
Shelby commanded Americans; Maj. Ferguson, 
the British. 24. Battle of the Cowpens, Jan. 17, 
1781 ; Americans victorious. Gen. Morgan com- 
manded Americans; Col. Tarleton, the British. 
25. Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8, 1781; Amer- 
icans victorious. Gen. Greene commanded Amer- 
icans; Cornwallis, the British. 26. Siege of York- 
town. Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19, 1781. 
Washington commanded Americans; Cornw^allis, 
the British. 

School History of the U. S., Henry, pp. 73, 7.^, 75. 

193. On the 30th of November, 1782, a prelimi- 
nary treaty was signed at Paris, by commissioners 
from the two governments, those from the United 
States being John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, 
John Jay, and Henry Laurens. On the 19th of 
April, 1783, a cessation of hostilities was pro- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 187 

claimed in the American army ; and on the 3d of 
September following a definite treaty was signed 
at Paris, Anderson^s U. 8. Hist., p. 98, art. 116. 

194. By the terms of the treaty, Great Britain 
acknowledged the independence of the United 
States, and the boundaries were fixed at the great 
lakes on the north and the Mississippi on the west. 
She also conceded the right to fish on the banks of 
l^ewfoundland. Florida was returned to Spain. 

Id.,p, 98, art, 117. 

195. The articles of confederation. 

Harper^ s School Hist. U. S. , p. 118. 

196. 1. Congress could ascertain the sum neces- 
sary to defray the expense of the public service, 
but it could not collect a dollar. It could contract 
debts, but it could not raise money. Some of the 
states made the desired levy, some delayed, and 
others refused. 2. There was no power to regulate 
commerce, either foreign or domestic. State tax- 
ation of goods brought in from adjoining states, 
was very common, and produced endless disputes 
and bitterness. 3. Nearly all the powers of Con- 
gress were merely advisory. It could declare any- 
thing, but it could do nothing. 

Model School Hist., Taylor, p, 134,, <^rt. 73. 

197. It was adopted September 17, 1787, by a 
convention at Pliiladelphia, which was called to 
revise the articles of confederation. 

School Hist, of U. 8. , Henry, p, 72. 

198. In some sections the new constitution met 
with the most determined opposition. Two politi- 
cal parties came into existence — the Federalists and 
Anti-Federalists, or Republicans. Id., p. 72. 



188 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

199. The former favored the constitution, and 
advocated a centralized government; the latter ad- 
vocated the doctrine of state sovereignty, and op- 
posed a central government. Id,, p. 72. 

200. The leaders of the Federal party were Alex- 
ander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay. 
Thomas Jefferson was the great head of the Anti- 
Federal, or Republican party. Id., p. 72. 

201. Philadelphia, 1774-76; Baltimore, 1776; 
Philadelphia, 1777; Lancaster and New York, 
1777; Philadelphia, 1778-83; Princeton, 1783; An- 
napolis, 1783; Trenton, 1784; York, 1785-89. 

Swinton's United States History, p. 160. 

202. The first slavery troubles arose in the con- 
vention that adopted the constitution of the United 
States. Violent disputes arose between the two 
sections concerning the ratio of representation. 

3Iodel School History, Taylor, p. 135. 

203. The northern members claimed that slaves 
should not be counted in representation and taxa- 
tion ; the southern, that they should. 

Id., pp. 135, 136. 

204. A compromise was effected by which ever 
afterward during the existence of slavery in the 
country, five slaves were equal in political power 
to three white men. Id., p. 136. 

205. This power was exercised by the masters, 
and not by the slaves; and thus, in several States 
of the South a wliite man had twice as much po- 
litical power as a white man in the North. , 

Id., p. 136. 

206. George Washington. 1789. By the whole 
people. Id., p. 138. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 189 

207. Appointment of the cabinet, United States 
Bank chartered, capital of the United States 
changed, Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee ad- 
mitted into the Union, Indian war in Ohio, death 
of Franklin. Events of Washington's second ad- 
ministration : Genet recalled by France, the whisky 
rebellion, treat}^ with England. 

Harpers U. S. Hist., 2'>V -^^^^ ^^^^ ^H- 

208. New York city was the first seat of our 
government; thence it was transferred to Philadel- 
phia; and in 1800 it was removed to Washington 
City, in the District of Columbia. 

Henry's School Hist. U. S.,p. 82. 

209. The District of Columbia was formerly ten 
miles square, given to the United States in 1790, 
by Maryland and Virginia, for the purposes of a 
national capital. In 1800 it became the seat of the 
general government, and the residence of the pres- 
dent and other chief executive officers of the na- 
tion. In 1846, by an act of Congress, the part 
given by Virginia was restored to that state; con- 
sequently the District is now confined to the Mary- 
land side of the Potomac, and contains about 
seventy square miles. Id., p. 82. 

210. In the fall of 1796, John Adams, the nomi- 
nee of the Federalists, was elected over his oppo- 
nent, Thomas Jefferson. . 

VenabWs U. S. Hist., pp. Ul, U2. 

211. Adams was a native of Massachusetts. He 
was an able lawyer and a good writer. Id., p. IJf.^, 

212. Troubles with France, death of Washing- 
ton, Dec. 14, 1799, death of Patrick Henry, removal 



190 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

of National Capital from Philadelphia to Washing- 
ton City, passing of the Alien and Sedition laws. 

Id., pp. H2, US, 

213. "Owing to the violent denunciations of the 
government by the friends and emissaries of France, 
the alien and sedition laws were passed. Under the 
former, the president could expel from the country 
any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the 
United States; under the latter, any one libelling 
Congress, the president or the government, could 
be fined or imprisoned. This was a most unpopu- 
lar measure, and excited the bitterest feeling." 

Henry's School History of the U. S., p. 83. 

214. The quarrel between the two great political 
parties — the Federalists and Republicans — grew 
more and more bitter as the presidential election 
approached. Adams was re-nominated by the for- 
mer; Jefferson was the candidate of the latter. 
The Republicans triumphed. Thomas Jefferson, 
of Virginia, was chosen president, and Aaron Burr, 
of N.Y., vice president. Harper's School Hist., p. 125. 

215. Thomas Jefferson was a ripe scholar, a bold 
reformer, the founder of the Republican party, and 
the author of the Declaration. He was an ardent 
supporter of the doctrine of State Rights, and led 
the opposition to the Federalists. 

Model School. History, Taylor, p. 156. 

216. The purchase of Louisiana, from France, in 
1803, for $15,000,000; war with Tripoli ; the Ham- 
ilton-Burr duel, July 11, 1804; expedition of Lewis 
and Chirke, 1804; the first steamboat, Robert Ful- 
ton, 1807; slave trade abolished, 1808. 

Henry's School History of the U. S., pp. 8If, 85. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 191 

217. The Republicans, or Democrats, elected 
James Madison as fourth president, and on March 
4, 1809, he was duly inauguratecl. He was re- 
elected in 1812, thus serving eight years. 

LL, pp. 85. 86. 

218. The principal events were a war with the 
Indians of the Northwest, and the second war with 
England, usually styled " The War of 1812." 

Jd.,p. 86. 

219. British emissaries aroused the Indians to 
war. A confederacy of the northwestern tribes 
was formed by the famous chief Tecumseh. The 
war was terminated by General Harrison's victory 
at the battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana, Nov. 7, 1811. 

Id., jj. 86, 

220. For a series of years England had oppressed 
American commerce. She had, besides, haughtily 
seized American seamen from the decks of Anfieri- 
can vessels, claiming them as deserters from her 
Hag. It was no longer to be borne, and on the 
19th of June, 1812, President Madison published a 
proclamation of war against England. 

Harper's School History of the U. S., pp. 129, 131. 

221. Naval battle between the Essex (American) 
and the Alert (British), Aug. 13, 1812. Com. Por- 
ter commanded Americans. Americans victorious. 
Surrender of Gen. William Hull to British, Aug. 
15, 1812, on eve of battle. Naval battle between 
Constitution (American) and Guerriere (British), 
August 19, 1812. Captain Isaac Hull commanded 
Americans; Capt. Dacres, the British. Americans 
victorious. Battle of Frenchtown, Jan. 22, 1813; 



192 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Americans defeated. G-eiieral Winchester, com- 
mander of the Americans; Gen. Proctor, the Brit- 
ish. JSTaval battle between the Chesapeake (Amer- 
ican) and the Shannon (British), Jan. 1, 1813. 
Capt. Lawrence commanded Americans; Captain 
Broke, the British. Americans defeated. Naval 
battle between American fleet and British fleet, on 
Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. Com. Perry com- 
manded Americans; Com. Barclay, the British. 
Americans victorious. Battle of Lundy's Lane, 
July 25, 1814; Americans victorious. Gen. Win- 
lield Scott commanded Americans; Gen. Kiall, the 
British. Capture of Washington City, Aug. 24, 
1814, by the British. Gen. Ross burned the Cap- 
itol building. Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815 ; 
Americans victorious. Gen. Jackson commanded 
Americans; Gen. Pakenham, the British. 

Henry's School Hist, of the U. S.,pp. 9S, 96, 97, 

222. A treaty of peace was concluded at Ghent, 
December 24, 1814. 

Harper's School Hist. U. S., p. llfi. 

223. Not a word was said in the treaty about op- 
pressions on American commerce, nor about the 
right of search — the two causes of the war. 

Id., p. UO. 

224. In the presidential election, held in the au- 
tumn of 1816, James Monroe, of Virginia, was 
elected by the Republicans, or Democrats. 

Henry's School Hist, of U. S., p. 101. 

225. The formation of the Colonization Society, 
the construction of the Erie Canal, war with the 
Seminole Indians, Florida ceded to the United 
States, the Monroe doctrine, LaFayette's visit, Mis- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 193 

sissippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine and Missouri 
admitted into the Union, the Missouri compromise. 

Id., pp. 102, 103. 

226. In one of President Monroe's messages, he 
declared, "that any attempt by a European nation 
to gain dominion in America, would be considered 
by the United States an unfriendly act." Id., p. 103. 

227. When the admission of Missouri was pro- 
posed, a violent debate arose on the question 
whether it should be a slave or a free state. It 
was linally arranged, in 1820, by an agreement 
known as the Missouri compromise, that Missouri 
might come in as a slave state, but that slavery 
should be prohibited in all other territory belong- 
ing to the United States west of the Mississippi 
and north of parallel 36° 30'. 

Campheirs School Hist. U. S., p. 138, 

228. The great party which had twice triumph- 
antly elected Monroe, was now divided into the 
Whig party and the Republican, or Democratic 
party. The Whigs were in favor of a protective 
tariff* and a general system of internal improve- 
ments; the Democrats opposed them. 

Henry's School History U. S. , p. 10 Jf,, 

229. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay were 
the champions of the Whigs; Andrew Jackson 
and John C. Calhoun of the Democrats. 

Id., p. 104,. 

230. 1^0 one receiving a majority of the electoral 
votes, the election went to the House of Represent- 
atives, by w^hom John Quincy Adams was chosen. 

Anderson's Gram. School Hist. U. S. , p. 137, 
13 



194 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

231. The high protective tariff of 1828; deaths 
of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4, 
1826; construction of the first railroad, 1827. 

Henry's School Hist. U. S., pp. 10^, JOS. 

232. The election of president during the fall of 
1828 ended in the choice of General Andrew Jack- 
son, of Tennessee, the hero of New Orleans. His 
election was considered a triumph of the Demo- 
crats over the Whigs and the protective system. 

Harper's U. S. History, p. I4S. 

233. Asiatic cholera, in 1832; Black Hawk's 
war; new tariff law, 1832; nulliiication act of 
South Carolina; removal of the Cherokees; the 
Texan war; great fire in I^ew York City, Decem- 
ber 16, 1835 ; Florida, or Seminole war, 1835 ; abo- 
lition of the United States bank; death of six 
eminent men ; admission of Arkansas and Louis- 
iana. 

School History of the U. S., Henry, pp. 105, 106, 107, 
108, 109. 

234. The election of President Van Buren was a 
triumph for the Democrats. It was a continuation 
of Jackson's policy. 

Swintoii's History of the U. S., p. 188, art. I4B. 

235. The "Panic of '37;" the Canadian Rebel- 
lion; Passage of the Sub-Treasury Bill. 

Id., pp. 188, 189. 

236. The ninth president of the United States was 
William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. Id., p. 199. 

237. The election of President Harrison was a 
triumph of the Whig party. Id. , p. 190, art. 149. 

238. President Harrison had been just a month 
in office when he died. Id., p. 190, art. ISO. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 195 

239. By the terms of the constitution, Vice- 
President Tyler succeeded him in the office of 
president. Id.^ p. 190, art, 150. 

240. Ans, No. 1. Tyler leaves the Whigs; sub- 
treasury bill repealed; resignation of the president's 
cabinet; boundary of Maine settled in 1842; rebel- 
lion in Rhode Island; annexation of Texas. 
Harper^ s School Hist, of the U. S., pp. 14-9, 150, 151, 

Ans. No. 2. The return of the Wilkes's Ex- 
ploring Expedition ; invention of the sewing ma- 
chine, by Eiias Howe, 1853; the great Mormon 
excitement of 1844; invention of the magnetic tel- 
egraph, by F. B. Morse, 1837; the admission of 
Florida, Texas and Iowa. 

School Hist. U. S., Henry, pp. 110, 111. 
• 241. The Texan question was the main issue of 
the campaign of 1844 — the Democrats being for, 
and the Whigs against, annexation. Id., p. 112. 

242. Jas. K. Polk was the Democratic candidate, 
and was inaugurated eleventh president, March 4, 
1845. Id. p. 112. 

243. The passage of the resolutions permitting 
Texas to join the Union was considered by the 
Mexicans as an act of hostility. Moreover the 
western boundary of Texas was in dispute. The 
Texans claimed the country as far as the Rio 
Grande, while, on the other hand, the Mexicans 
contended that the revolted province had never 
spread farther westward than the River I^^ueces. 

History of the U. S.^ Campbell, p. 14-6. 

244. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca delaPalma, 
May 8 and 9, 1846. Capture of Monterey, Sept. 



196 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

24, 1846. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 23, 1847. 
Capture of City of Mexico, Sept. 14, 1847. 

Harper^s School History, pp. 152, 151^,, 156. 

245. The Americans gained every battle. 
Heiiry^s School History of the U. S., p. 116. 

246. Gens. Taylor and Scott, Americans; Santa 
Anna, the Mexicans. Id., pp. 116, 117. 

247. The Mexican war was /orma% ended by the 
treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, concluded February 
2, 1848. TJ. S. History, Swinton, p. 197, art. 187. " 

248. The treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo ceded to 
the United States all the vast territory now com- 
prised in IS'ew Mexico, Utah, and California. In 
return Mexico received a compensation of fifteen 
millions of dollars. Id., pp. 197, 198, art. 188. 

249. Smithsonian Institution established in April, 
1846; northern boundary of the United States set- 
tled June, 1846 ; gold discovered in California Feb- 
ruary, 1848; Wisconsin admitted into the Union. 

School History of the U. S. , Henry, pp. 115, 116. 

250. Both political parties made efforts to secure 
the control of the territory acquired by the war. 
For this purpose, the Wilmot Proviso, so named 
from its author, David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, 
was introduced into congress, excluding slavery 
from the whole of the new acquisitions. It was 
long discussed, but finally defeated. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. 230, art. 332. 

251. In the campaign of 1848, three distinct 
parties — the Whigs, the Democrats, and the Free- 
soilers — brought out candidates. Taylor was nomi- 
nated by the Whigs ; General Lewis Cass, of Michi- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 197 

gan, by the Democrats, and Martin Van Buren by 
the Free-soilers. 

History of the U. S.,VenaMe,p. 187, art. 212. 

252. They held that Congress should prohibit 
the introduction of slavery into the territories. 

Id., p. 187, art, 212. 

253. Zachary Taylor. Id., p. 187, art. 212, 

254. When sixteen months had elapsed, Presi- 
dent Taylor's administration was abruptly closed 
by his death, which occurred, after a brief illness, 
on the 9th of July, 1850. Id., p. 187, art 212. 

255. The Vice President, Millard Fillmore, of 
New York, now became chief magistrate. 

Id., p. 187, art. 212. 

256. Admission of California, September 9, 1850; 
the passage of the "omnibus bill ;" Cuban " filli- 
bustering;" deaths of John C. Calhoun, March 31, 
1850, Henry Clay, June 28, 1852, Daniel Webster, 
October 24, 1852. 

School Hist. U. S. , Henry, pp. 125, 126. 

257. California formed a constitution and applied 
to Congress for admission into the Union as a free 
state. Her admission was opposed by the southern 
leaders, and for several months a hot discussion was 
carried on within the walls of Cono:ress. 

School Hist. U. S., Campbell, p. 156, 

258. The measures devised by Clay, known as 
the " omnibus bill, or compromise of 1850," passed 
Congress in September. Id., p. 157, 

259. It provided, 1st. For the admission of Cali- 
fornia as a free state ; 2d. For organizing territorial 
governments in Utah and New Mexico, without 
any provision for or against slavery; 3d. For estab- 



198 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

lishing the boundary of Texas, as at present, and 
paying that state ten millions of dollars to relin- 
quish all claim to additional territory; 4th. For 
prohibiting, not slavery, but the slave trade in the 
District of Columbia; 5th. For the enactment of a 
fugitive slave law, to enable masters to recover 
their slaves escaping to a free state. Id., p. 157. 

260. The question at issue was the compromise 
act of 1850. Model School Hist, Taylor, p. 235. 

261. The candidates were Franklin Pierce, of 
New Hampshire, representing the Democratic 
party ; Gen. Winfield Scott, representing theWhigs ; 
and John P. Hale, of J^ew Hampshire, the Free- 
soilers. Id., p. 235, art. 3^7. 

262. Pierce was elected by a large majority, 
Scott receiving the vote of only three States. 

Id., p. 235, art 34,7. 

263. The Gadsden Purchase; the World's Fair, 
at IS'ew York, July 14,1853; the treaty with Japan; 
commencement of the Pacific Railroad; the Kan- 
sas-Kebraska bill; assault on Charles Sumner. 

Id., pp. 236, 237, 239. 

264. The United States acquired 27,000 square 
miles of territory south of the Gila (he' lah) river, 
by paying Mexico $10,000,000. This transaction 
is known as the Gadsden purchase. 

School History of the U. S., Henry, p. 126, 

265. In 1853 Stephen A. Douglas introduced the 
famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill, organizing the Ter- 
ritories of Kansas and Nebraska, and giving the 
inhabitants of each territory the right to decide for 
themselves, whether the State should be admitted 
free or slave. Id., p. 127, 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 199 

266. This doctrine was called "squatter sove- 
reignty. '^ Id., p. 127, 

267. As it was a repudiation of the Missouri 
compromise, it caused violent and intense feeling. 

Jd, jp. 127, 

268. It became a law in 1854. Id., p. 127, 

269. It brought about a "border warfare" be- 
tween pro-slavery and anti-slavery men. 

Id., p, 127. 

270. The Know-E'othings, or Americans. 

Id., p. 127, 
Til. It entertained the principle that America 
should be ruled by Americans and opposed the in- 
fluence of foreigners. Id., p. 127, 

272. The Free-soil Democrats organized a new 
party styled "Republicans." Id., p. 127. 

273. The Democrats were in favor of letting 
slavery extend wherever it found its way by the 
voice of the people. Id,, p. 128. 

274. In the election of 1856 the Know-:N"othing3 
supported ex-President Fillmore ; the Republicans, 
John C. Fremont; and the Democrats, James Bu- 
chanan. Buchanan was elected. Id., p. 128. 

275. The "Dred Scott" decision; trouble with 
the Mormons; John Brown's raid; Oregon, Kan- 
sas and Minnesota admitted into the Union. 

Id., pp. 128, 129. 

276. This decision, which was delivered by Chief 
Justic Taney, declared the Missouri Compromise 
unconstitutional; that the constitution gave slave- 
owners the right to hold their slaves in the terri- 
tories, and that neither negro slaves nor their des- 



200 THE NOHMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

cendants, slave or free, could become citizens of 
the United States. 

School Hist, of the U. 8., Campbell, p. 160. 

277. Four. Abraham Lincohi, the candidate of 
the Republican party was elected. Id.^ p. 161. 

278. When it became known that the party op- 
posed to the further extension of slavery had been 
successful, and that Lincoln would be the next 
president, public meetings were held in South Car- 
olina to bring about a secession of that State from 
the Union ; and, on the 20th of December, 1860, an 
ordinance of secession was passed by a state con- 
vention held in Charleston. 

Ander son's U. 8. History^ p. 158. 

279. January, 1861, five of the slave states — Mis- 
sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana, 
passed secession ordinances; and, on the first of 
February, Texas did the same. Id., p. 158. 

280. On the fourth of February, 1861, a congress 
composed of delegates from all these States, except 
Texas, met at Montgoraer}^ ; and four days after, 
organized a government by the adoption of a "pro- 
visional constitution,^' assuming the title of the 
" Confederate States of America." Id., p. 159. 

281. (1) The diiFerence in habits and pursuits 
had tended to weaken the bonds of common an- 
cestry. 

(2) Different opinions of the nature of the gov- 
ernment, whether it was an indivisible union or a 
mere compact of states, — had existed since the days 
of Washington. 

(3) It had long been foreseen that the balance 
of political power, which was steadily moving 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 201 

northward, would at some time overchrow the 
southern rule. 

(4) The failure of the Missouri Compromise, 
which had preserved peace for forty years, revived 
the earlier threats of disunion. 

(5) The tariff, resulting in nullification, was 
seen to favor the manufacturing North at the ex- 
pense of the cotton growing South. 

(6) Little intercourse between the two sections 
led to jealousy and suspicion, till they looked upon 
each other almost as separate nationalities. 

(7) The publication of sectional books, whose 
popularit}^ depended on the animosity between the 
two sections, were generally filled with ridicule and 
falsehood, and did much to embitter the sectional 
hatred. 

(8) The slavery question ; especially as involved 
in the annexation of Texas, the fugitive slave law, 
the "Dred Scott Decision," the Kansas struggle, the 
John Brown raid — these, all these tended to alien- 
ate the sympathies of the people, and, in the ex- 
citements of the passing hour, made them forget 
common interests and their common struggles for 
independence. The gates of war were opened. 

Model School History, Taylor, p. '21^9. 
282. President Lincoln's inaus^ural messas^e was 
full of expressions of good-will to the South, urging 
obedience to the laws, and affirming that he " had 
no lawful right," and "no inclination" to interfere 
with slavery; that secession meant anarchy; and 
that, if war should arise, the South would be the 
aggressors. 

Harper^ s School History of the Z7. S., p. 1.66, 



202 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

283. The first gun of the war was fired at Fort 
Sumter, South Carolina, at half-past four o'clock, 
Friday morning, April 12, 1861. 

Barnes's Brief Hist Z7. S. , p. 216. 

284. This ''strange contest between seventy men 
and seven thousand," lasted for thirty-four hours, 
no one being hurt on either side. Jd., p. 216. 

285. A regiment of Massachusetts militia, hurry- 
ing to the defense of the national capital, was at- 
tacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men 
were killed. Thus the first blood shed in the civil 
war was April 19, 1861. Id , p. 217. 

286 The Confederate flag, the " stars and bars," 
was conspicuously displayed everywhere in the 
south; the "stars and stripes" everywhere in the 
north. Henrys School Hist U. 8., p. 132. 

287. The eleven states that formed the Southern 
Confederacy, were : South Carolina, Mississippi, 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas, i^orth Carolina, Tennessee. 

Id., p. 133. 

288. Bull liun, Virginia, July 21, 1861; Cedar 
Mountain, Virginia, August 9,1862; Second Bull 
Run, Virginia, August 29, 1862 ; Harper's Ferry, 
Virginia, September 15, 1862; Fredericksburg, 
Virginia, December 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, Vir- 
ginia, May 2 and 3, 1863; Chickamauga, Georgia, 
September 19 and 20, 1863 ; Cold Harbor, Virginia, 
June 3, 1864. Id., pp. 150, 151. 

289. Rich Mountain, Va., July 11, 1861; Fort 
Henry, Tenn., Feb. 6, 1862; Fort Donelson,Tenn., 
Feb. 16, 1862; Pea Ridge, Mo., March 6, 1862; 
Merrimac and Monitor, Va., March 9, 1862; i^ew 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 203 

Orleans, La., April 28, 1862; Murfreesboro', Tenn , 
Dec. 31, 1862; Vicksburg, July 4, 1863; Gettys- 
burg, Pa., July 1st and 3d, 1863; Chattanooga, 
Tenn., Nov. 23 and 24, 1863 ; Alabama and Kear- 
sarge, naval battle, June 15, 1864; Lost Mountain, 
Ga., June 15 and 17, 1864; Atlanta, Ga., Sept. 2, 
1864; second battle Cedar Creek, Ya., October 19, 
1864; I^ashville, Tenn., December 15 and 16, 1864; 
Petersburg and Richmond, Va., April 2, 1865. 

Id., pp. 152, 153. 

290. Indecisive battles of the war : Shiloh, Tenn., 
April 6, 1862; Fair Oaks, Ya., May 31, 1862; Sav- 
age Station, Ya., June 29, 1862; Frazier's Farm, 
Ya., June 30, 1862; Antietam, Md., Sept. 17, 1862; 
Perryville, Ky,, Oct. 8, 1862; Wilderness, Ya.,May 
5 and 6, 1864; Spottsylvania, Ya., May 8 and 12, 
1864. Id., p. 153. 

291. The surrender of Lee's Army at Appomat- 
tox court-house, April 9, 1865. 

Swinton^s Condensed U. S. History^ p. 286. 

292. The assassination of President Lincoln. 

Harper^s School History, 196. 

293. Yice President Johnson. Id., p. 196. 

294. The reconstruction of the Secession States. 

Id., p. 197. 

295. The Amnesty proclamation; tenure of office 
bill; impeachment of the president, laying of the 
Atlantic cable; purchase of Russian America. 

Id., pp. 196, 197. 
Also, the 13th amendment to the constitution; 
the civil rights bill passed ; the Fenian raid ; trouble 
with Mexico and France; Nebraska admitted; se- 



204 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ceded states re-admitted; fourteenth amendment 
adopted; Indian war; treaty with China, 1868. 
Henry^s School History, pp. 162, 163, 16Jf., 

296. 1,000,000 men were destroyed on both sides; 
and tlie money paid out for the war was more than 
$4,000,000,000. Id., p. 161, 

297. U. S. Grant. 

298. BuiUling of the Pacific Railroad; adoption 
of the 15t]i amendment; the 9th census taken; the 
Alabama claims settled; the burning of Chicago 
in 1871. Model School History, pp. 27 Jj., 275, 276. 

299. Great fire in Boston, IsTovember 9, 1872; 
the Modoc war; the great financial panic of 1873; 
1873, the year of epidemics ; troubles with Spain ; 
visit of the Grand Duke Alexis, of Russia; 
troubles in Louisiana during 1873 and 1874; visit 
of King Kalakaua, of the Sandwich Islands, Pacific 
Ocean, 1875: Colorado admitted, 1876; deaths of 
Edwin M. Stanton, December, 1869, General Rob- 
ert E. Lee, General George li. Thomas and Ad- 
miral Farragut in 1870, William H. Seward, Prof. 
Morse, Horace Greeley and General Meade in 1872, 
Chief Justice Chase in 1873, Senator Charles Sum- 
ner in 1874, Ex-President Andrew Johnson, John 
C. Breckinridge and A^ice-President Henry Wilson 
in 1875; the Custar slaughter, 1876; the Centen- 
nial Exhibition at Philadelphia from May 10 to 
November 10, 1876; visit of Dom Pedro, Emperor 
of Brazil, 1876. 

Henry's School Hist, of the U. S., pp. 167, 168, 169, 170, 

300. Rutherford B. Hayes. 

301. The electoral tribunal; troubles in Louisiana 
and South Carolina. Id., p, 171. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 205 

ANSWERS TO MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

302. Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 
Jackson and Grant. 

303. Harrison, Taylor, Lincoln and Garfield. 
394. Madison was president daring the war of 

1812; Polk was president during the Mexican war; 
Lincoln was president during the civil war. 

305. John Adams and John Quincy Adams. 

306. The old Republican party, as opposed to the 
Federalists, elected Jefferson and Madison. 

307. Jackson, Van Buren, Polk, Pierce and Bu- 
chanan. 

308. Lincoln, Grant, Hayes and Garfield. 

309. "Washington and Monroe. 

310. Benjamin Franklin, inventor of the light- 
ning-rod, 1752. 

Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin, 1793. 

Thomas Blanchard, inventor of the tack ma- 
chine, 1806. 

Robert Fulton, inventor of the steamboat, 1807. 

Jethro Wood, inventor of the modern cast- 
iron plow, 1819. 

Ross Winans, inventor of the railroad passen- 
ger car, 1828. 

Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor of the electric 
telegraph, 1837. 

Charles Goodyear, inventor of vulcanized rub- 
ber, 1839. 

Elias Howe, inventor of the sewing machine, 
1843. 

Cyrus McCormick, inventor of the harvesting 
machine, 1845. 



206 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

James Lyall, inventor of the positive motion 
loom, 1868. 

James B. Eads, originator and constructor of 
the ^^reat steel bridge over the Mississippi at St. 
Louis, 1867 ; and of the jetties below New Orleans, 
1876. 

Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, 1877. 

Thomas A. Edison, inventor of the talking 
phonograph and electric light, 1877-78. 

311. Benjamin Franklin. 

312. Jonathan Edwards. 

313. Joseph E. Worcester and Noah Webster. 

314. Bowditch and Rittenhouse. 

315. The Audubons and Agassiz. 

316. Irving, Brown, Hawthorne and Fenimore 
Cooper. 

317. Sparks, Bancroft, Hildreth, Lossing, Pres- 
oott, Motley, Head ley and Irving. 

318. Halleck, Foe, Willis, Whittier, Lowell, 
Longfellow, Bryant, Freneau and Dana. 

319. William Onllen Bryant, Horace Greeley, 
James Gordon Bennett, Sr. 

320. Powers, Greenough, Story, and Harriet 
Hosmer. 

321. West, Copley, Paije, Stuart, Trumbull and 
Sully. 

322. Webster, Clay, Everett, Calhoun and Sum- 
ner. 

323. The territory of the United States, at the 
close of the Revolution, was bounded as follows: 

On the north by the Great Lakes, on the east 
by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf 
of Mexico, and on the west by the Mississij)pi river; 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 207 

but from the region lying within tliis boundary, 
the Spanish province of Florida and that part of 
the present State of Louisiana which lies east of 
the Mississippi river, must be excluded, in defining 
the original domain of the U. S. 

324. In 1787, the region north of the Ohio river 
was organized under the name of the I^orthwest 
Territory. 

325. From this territory five states have been 
formed, as follows: Ohio, in 1802; Indiana, in 
1816; Illinois, in 1818; Michigan, in 1837; and 
Wisconsin, in 1848. 

326. The region south of the Ohio was generally 
called the Southwest Territory. 

327. From it have been formed the followinor 
states: Kentuck}^ in 1792; Tennessee, in 1796; 
Mississippi, in 1817; and Alabama, in 1819. 

328. No. 

329. No. » 

330. Maine was granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges 
and John Mason, by the Council of Plymouth, in 
1622. In 1677 it was purchased from the heirs of 
Gorges and Mason by Massachusetts. It was or- 
ganized and admitted as a state in 1820. 

331. Vermont was formed out of territory which 
had been claimed by J^ew York and NeAv Hamp- 
shire. Vermont was admitted into the Union in 
1791, being the first state admitted, and making 
the number of states fourteen. 

332. Louisiana, in 1812; Missouri, in 1821; Ar- 
kansas, in 1836 ; Iowa, in 1846 ; Minnesota, in 1858 ; 
Oregon, in 1859; Kansas, in 1861; Nebraska, in 
1867; Colorado, in 1876; Washington territory^ 



208 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

organized in 1853; Dakotah territory, organized in 
1861; Idaho territory, organized in 1863; Montana 
territory, organized in 1863 ; Wyoming territory, 
organized in 1868; Indian territory. 

33. Florida was under Spanish rule until 1763, 
when it was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for 
Cuba, which the English had recently taken from 
Spain. In 1783 England ceded the province back 
to Spain, and in 1821 it was acquired by the United 
States for the sum of $5,000,000. 

334. The region bounded by the latitude 42°, the 
Rocky Mountains, latitude 54°,' and the Pacific 
Ocean, was long known as Oregon. 

325. Captain Gray discovered its principal river 
in 1792, and Lewis and Clark explored the country 
in 1804. 

336. Texas at one time was a part of Mexico, 
but becoming dissatisfied with the government, re- 
volted in 1836, and set up an independent govern- 
ment. In 1845 Texas was annexed to the United 
States. 

337. By the name of Russian America. 

338. The United States purchased Alaska of 
Russia, in 1867, for $7,200,000. 

339. " Let us remember that the real glory of a 
nation comes not from riches or power, or lands of 
vast extent, but from the love of right and truth," 



PHYSIOLOGY. 209 



QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 



1. Illustrate the value of physiological knowl- 
edge. 

2. Into what two bodies is the kingdom of na- 
ture divided? 

3. Define organic bodies. 

4. What does this division include? 

5. Define inorganic bodies. 

6. What does this division include? 

7. What is the distinction between organic and 
inorganic matter? 

8. In what conditions may we study organized 
matter? 

9. What science is derived from the first, and 
what from the second method? 

10. Give a full and complete definition of phys- 
iology. 

11. Define anatomy. 

12. How are anatomy and physiology divided ? 

13. How are animal anatomy and physiology di- 
vided ? 

14. Define comparative anatomy and physiology, 

15. To what are human anatomy and physiology 
limited in their application ? 

14 



210 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

16. How are plants nourished? 

17. How are animals nourished? 

18. What do animals always possess ? 

19. What functions are peculiar to animals alone ? 
20.^ What substances enter into the structure of 

the human bo^y ? 

21. What can you say of the interchangeability 
of these substances ? 

22. How do these substances vary at different 
periods of life ? 

23. What efiect does this have on the limbs in 
childhood and in old age? 

24. What offices do the fluids of the system per- 
form ? 

25. Name the fluids of the body. 

26. How are the particles of matter arranged in 
Bolids? 

27. ISTame the solids of the body. 

28. Give the list of chemical elements in the hu- 
man body. 

29. Into what substances are these elements di- 
vided ? 

30. !N"ame the metallic substances. 

31. Name the non-metallic substances. 

32. Give an arrangement of the parts of the body. 

33. Define a fibre. 

34. Define a fasciculus. 

35. Define a tissue. 

36. Define an organ. 

37. What is the action of an organ called? 

38. Give an example of an organ and its func- 
tion. 

39. Define an apparatus. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 211 

40. Define a system. 

41. To what can every organ of the body be re- 
duced ? 

42. What tissue is the primary form of all others ? 

43. How is the cellular tissue formed ? 

44. Where is the cellular tissue found ? 

45. What is the chief use of this tissue ? 

46. What different names have been given to 
the cellular tissue? 

47. Describe the osseous tissue, 

48. Describe the muscular tissue. 

49. Describe the nervous tissue. 

50. Into what divisions may the human system 
be divided? 

51. How are the bones constructed? 

52. Give the principal uses of the bones. 

53. Why do the bones have such different shapes? 

54. Of what are the bones composed? 

55. What are the different uses of the component 
parts of the bones? 

56. In what state do bones exist at first? 

57. How are they converted into bone? 

58. Which portion of the bones continues to in- 
crease and which to diminish to old age ? 

59. What proportion of the bones is animal mat- 
ter in children? — in adults?— in old age? 

60. What is the condition of the bones in chil- 
dren? 

61. At what age do the bones arrive to perfec- 
tion ? 

62. What is the condition of the bones in old 
age? 

63. What is the strength of the human bone ? 



212 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

64. How many bones are there in the human 
body? 

65. Define ossification of the bones. 

66. What is meant by centres of ossification f 

67. What is the only bone in the body which ie 
completely ossified, or hardened, at birth ? 

68. What is the connection between any two 
bones called? 

69. How many joints are there in the human 
body? 

70. How many kinds of joints are there? 

71. What is the construction of a movable joint? 

72. Define cartilage. 

73. What are the chief uses of cartilage? 

74. What is the membrane called that invests 
the bones? 

75. Into how many parts are the bones of the 
body divided? 

76. How are the bones of the head divided? 

77. Describe the bones of the skull. 

78. ITame the bones of the skull. 

79. How are the bones of the skull united? 

80. What is the form of the skull? 

81. How many bones in the ear, and what is 
their use? 

82. How many bones in the face, and what is 
their use? 

83. [N'ame the bones of the trunk. 

84. How many bones in the spinal column ? How 
are they arranged? 

85. How are the bones of the spinal column di- 
vided? 



PHYSIOLOGY. 213 

86. What is gained by the division of the spinal 
column into so many separate pieces? 

87. Of what does each vertebra consist? 

88. How many ribs are there? 

89. What do the ribs form? 

90. Into how many and what classes are the ribs 
divided? 

91. Describe the curvatures of the ribs. 

92. How, and to what are the ribs united? 

93. Describe the sternum. 

94. How many and what bones in the pelvis? 

95. How many bones in the upper extremities? 
Name them. 

96. How many bones in the lower extremities ? 
Name them. 

97. What is a muscle? 

98. How are the motions of the body performed? 

99. How is muscular motion exerted? 

100. What are characteristic properties of mus- 
cles? 

101. What does contractility imply ? 

102. What does sensibility imply? 

103. Muscles are of how many kinds? 

104. How are the voluntary and involuntary mus- 
cles distinguished? 

105. What are the uses of the muscles? 

106. How many muscles are there ? 

107. How are the muscles arranged ? 

108. How are the muscles attached to the bones? 

109. What effect has exercise upon the muscles? 

110. Name the digestive organs. 

111. Describe the mouth. 

112. Name the salivary glands. 



214 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

113. Describe the pharynx. 

114. Describe the esophagus. 

115. Describe the human stomach. 

116. How is it placed? 

117. What is its average capacity in the adult? 

118. How many openings has it, and what are 
they called? 

119. How many coats does the stomach possess, 
and what are they ? 

120. Describe the lacteals. 

121. Describe the intestines. 

122. Describe the liver. 

123. Describe the pancreas. 

124. What must our food contain ? , 

125. Define food. 

126. Of what does food consist ? 

127. What does organic food comprise ? 

128. What does inorganic food comprise ? 

129. What changes are wrought upon the food 
in the body? 

130. What does digestion comprise ? 

131. What are the chief functions of the stom- 
ach? 

132. What are the chief conditions favorable to 
stomach digestion? 

133. Name the digestive fluids, 

134. What are the functions of the saliva ? 

135. What is the function of the gastric juice? 

136. What are the functions of the bile? 

137. What are the functions of the pancreatic 
juice ? 

138. What is the probable function of the intes- 
tinal juice? 



PHYSIOLOGY. 215 

189. Of what is chyme composed? 

140. When is chyme changed to chyle? 

141. What is the ohject of absorption? 

142. How is absorption effected ? 

143. Explain absorption by blood vessels. 

144. Explain absorption by lacteals. 

145. Describe the lymphatic system. 

146. How is the chyle finally made into blood? 

147. What are the organs used for the circula- 
tion of the blood? 

148. Describe the heart. 

149. Describe the auricles. 

150. Describe the ventricles. 

151. How do the cavities in the heart diff*er? 

152. What is found between the auricle and ven- 
tricle in the right side of the heart? 

153. How many valves in the left side, and their 
Dames? 

154. What vessels proceed from the ventricles ? 

155. Describe their valves. 

156. Give a complete description of the valves of 
the heart. 

157. With w^hat is the heart supplied? 

158. Has the heart sensibility? 

159. Name and describe the parts of the circula- 
tion of the blood. 

160. What propels the blood through the body? 

161. Describe the movements of the heart. 

162. What are the veins? 

163. Where do they commence? 

164. Give the structure of the coats of the veins. 

165. What are arteries? 

166. Give their structure. 



216 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

167. Describe the coats of the arteries. 

168. What do the capillaries constitute ? 

169. For what are the capillaries remarkable? 

170. What relation do the capillaries bear to the 
arteries and veins? 

171. What important operations are performed 
in these vessels? 

172. Give the elements of the blood. 

173. Give the specific gravity and temperature 
of the blood. 

174. How much blood in the body ? 

175. Give the use of the corpuscles of the blood. 

176. State the difference between the red and 
white blood corpuscles. 

177. E'ame the uses of the blood. 

178. !N'ame the respiratory organs. 

179. What organs also aid in the respiratory pro- 



cess 



180. What is the structure of the lungs? 

181. Describe the trachea. 

182. Define an air cell. 

183. Of what use are the capillaries in the lungs ? 

184. What is the difference between arterial and 
venous blood? 

185. What is respiration? 

186. What is the object of respiration ? 

187. State the deductions from the experiments 
of Dr. Southwood Smith. 

188. Compare the lungs and heart, giving three 
points in common and three points of difference. 

189. What are the heat-producing organs? 

190. What is at present the most readily accepted 
theory of animal heat? 



PHYSIOLOGY. 217 

191. What is the temperature of the human 
body? 

192. How is the body kept at its uniform tem- 
perature? 

193. What is the essential organ of the voice in 
all animals? 

194. Describe the larynx. 

195. What are the vocal chords? 

196. What are the essential conditions of the 
production of the human voice? 

197e Kame the secretory organs. 

198. Describe the exhalants. 

199. Describe the follicles. 

200. Describe the glands. 

201. What is secretion? 

202. What is the skin? 

203. Describe the two layers of the skin. 

204. ^ame the general properties of the skin. 

205. Give the uses of the skin. 

206. Describe the hair and nails. 

207. Describe the secretions of the skin. 

208. Give the functions of the nervous system. 

209. Give the divisions of the nervous system. 

210. What does the cerebro-spinal system com- 
prise ? 

211. What does the sympathetic system contain ? 

212. Describe the brain. 

213. Give the divisions of the brain. 

214. Describe the cerebrum and cerebellum. 

215. Describe the spinal cord. 

216. Describe the cerebro-spinal nerves. 

217. Of what does the sympathetic system con- 
sist? 



218 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK/ 

218. Of what is the nervous system composed? 

219. What are the fuuctions of the cerebrum? 

220. What are the functions of the cerebellum? 

221. What is the function of the medulla oblon- 
gata f 

222. What are the functions of the spinal cord? 

223. What are the functions of the sympathetic 
system ? 

224. With what are the nerves endowed ? 

225. Define the sensory organs. 

226. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
touch consist? 

227. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
taste consist? 

228. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
smell consist? 

229. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
sight consist? 

230. Name the three coats of the eye-ball. 

231. Of what is the optical apparatus made up? 

232. Of what does the structure of the sense of 
hearing consist? 

233. To what is the outer ear adapted? 

234. Describe the middle ear. 

235. Describe the inner ear. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 219 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. 



1. Precious lives are frequently lost through 
ignorance. Thousands squander in early years the 
strength which should have been kept for the work 
of real life. Habits are often formed which entail 
weakness and poverty upon manhood. Some silly 
feat of strength may produce an irreparable injury. 
A thoughtless hour of reading by twilight may im- 
pair the sight for life. A terrible accident may 
happen, and we might be able to save life if we 
''only knew what to do." Physiology gives us 
that knowledge which may save or lengthen life, 
repel or abate disease, and which regulates our 
bodily vigor. 

Steele^s Fourteen Weeks in Physiology, p. IS. 

2. The kingdom of nature is divided into organic 
and inorganic bodies. 

Cutter's Anatomy y Physiology and Hygiene, p. 13. 

3. Organic bodies possess organs on whose ac- 
tions depend their growth and perfection. 

Id., pp. IS, U. 

4. This division includes animals and plants. 

Id., p. 14" 

5. Inorganic bodies are devoid of organs, or in- 
struments ot life. . Id., p. 14" 



220 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

6. Ill this division are classed the earths, metals, 
and other minerals. Id. , p. 14-. 

7. The distinction between these two great 
classes of materials is based upon form, coherence, 
growth, composition and derivation. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. 10. 

8. There are two conditions in which we may 
Btudy organized matter: namely, as living beings 
and as dead bodies. 

Class-Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 10, art. 6. 

9. The science of Physiology is derived from 
the first method, and the science of Anatomy from 
the second. Id,, p. 10, art. 7. 

10. Human Physiology is the science which 
treats of the life of man — of the way in which he 
lives, and moves, and has his being. It teaches 
how man is begotten and born, how he attains ma- 
turity, and how he dies. 

Hand- Book of Physiology, Kirk, p. 13. 

11. Anatomy teaches the number, size, situation, 
and composition of the various parts, with their 
relations to each other. 

Class- Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 10, art. 9. 

12. Anatomy and Physiology, in their most ex- 
tended use, apply to all organized beings, though 
the}^ are naturally divided into the several branches 
of Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, and Ani- 
mal Anatomy and Physiology. Id., p. 10, art. 10. 

13. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again 
divided into Comparative Anatomy and Physiol- 
ogy, and Human Anatomy and Physiology. 

Id., p. 10, art. 11. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 221 

14. Comparative anatomy and physiology are de- 
voted to the lower orders of animals. 

Id., p. 10, art. m, 

15. Human anatomy and physiology are limited 
in their application to man. Id.^ p. 10, art. 13. 

16. Plants are nourished by the inorganic ele- 
ments found in the earth and air around them. 
The materials of their growth are received in the 
foYm of a liquid or a gas, already prepared for their 
use. Id., p. 15, art. 16. 

17. Animals are nourished by the organic mate- 
rials of vegetables or of other animals. 

Id., p. 15, art. 17, 

18. Animals always possess a stomach or a diges- 
tive cavity, in which their food is received, to un- 
dergo a process of preparation before it can be ab- 
sorbed into their tissues. Id., iJ. 15, art. 17. 

19. Sensation and voluntary motion are peculiar 
to animals alone, and are therefore called animal 
functions. Id., p. 15, art. 18. ' 

20. In the structure of the human body, there is 
a union of fluids and solids. 

Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Cutter, p. 17, 
art. 17. 

21. These substances are essentially the same, 
for the one is readily changed into the other. There 
is no fluid that does not contain solid matter in 
solution, and no solid matter that is destitute of 
fluid. Id., p. 17, art. 17, 

22. In different individuals, and at different pe- 
riods of life the proportion of fluids and solids 
varies. In youth, the fluids are more abundant 
than in advanced life. Id., p. 17, art. 18. 



222 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

23. For this reason, the limbs in childhood are 
soft and round, while in old age they assume a 
hard and wrinkled appearance. 

Id., p. 17, art. 17, 

24. The fluids not only contain the materials 
from which every part of the body is formed, but 
they are the medium for conveying the waste, de- 
cayed particles of matter from the system. 

Id., jp. 17, art. 19. 

25. The fluids of the body are blood, chyle, 
lymph, saliva,gastric juice, pancreatic juice, syno- 
via, mucous, and serum. Bile, sweat and urine are 
excretions. 

Phys. and Hyg., Loughborough, p. 19, ans. S8. 

26. The particles of matter in solids are arranged 
variously ; sometimes in fibres (threads), some- 
times in lamincB (plates), sometimes homogeneously, 
as in basement membranes. 

Anat., Phys. and Hyg., Cutter, p. 17, art. 20. 

27. The solids of the body are bones, teeth, car- 
tilages, ligaments, muscles, nerves, vessels, viscera, 
membranes, skin, hair and nails. 

Phys. and Hyg., Loughborough, p. 19, ans. 27. 

28. Of the sixty-five chemical elements or simple 
bodies known to exist, only fifteen have been found 
as normal constituents of the human body. The 
following is the list: 

(1) Oxygen, (9) Sodium, 

(2) Hydrogen, (10) Potassium, 

(3) Carbon, (11) Chlorine, 

(4) Nitrogen, (12) Fluorine, 

(5) Sulphur, (13) Silicon, 

(6) Phosphorus, (14) Iron, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 223 

(7) Calcium, (15) Mangane?e. 

(8) Magnesium, 

Hitchcock's Anatomy and Physiology, p. 6, art. 10, 

29. These elements are divided into metallic and 
non-metallic substances. 

Anatomy , Phys. and Hyg., Cutter, p. ^5, art. 1^.3. 

30. The metallic substances are potassium, so- 
dium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron man- 
ganese, and copper. Id., p. 25, art. J^S. 

31. The non-metallic substances are oxygen, 
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, silicium, phosphorus, 
sulphur, chlorine, and a few others. 

Id., p. 25, art. 43. 
82. The parts of the body are arranged into 
fibres, fasciculi, tissues, organs, apparatuses, and 
systems. Id., p. 17, art. 21. 

33. A fibre is a thread of exceeding fineness. It 
is either cylindriform or flattened. 

Id., p. 18, art. 22. 

34. A fasciculus is the term applied to several 
fibres united. Its general characteristics are the 
same as fibres. Id., p. 18, art. 23. 

35. A tissue is a term applied to several diiFerent 
solids of the body. Id., p. 18, art. 2^. 

36. An organ is an instrument composed of tis- 
sues, and designed for action. 

Class-Book of Physiology, Comings, p. 21, art. 36. 

37. Its action is called its function or use. 

Id., p. 21, art. 36. 

38. The liver is an organ, and the secretion of 
bile its function. Id., p. 21, art. 36. 

39. An apparatus consists of a number of difier- 
ent organs, arranged for the performance of some 



224 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

office. The teeth, mouth, stomach, intestines, etc., 
belong to the digestive apparatus. 

Id., p. ^1, art, 37. 

40. A system is a connected series of similar 
parts, such as the muscular or the nervous system. 

Id., p. 21, art. 38. 

41. However various all organs may appear in 
their structure and composition, it is now supposed 
that they can he reduced to a few tissues, as the 
cellular, osseous, muscular, mucous, nervous, etc. 

Anat., Phys. and Hygiene, Cutter, p. 29, art. 29. 

42. The cellidar or areolar tissue is regarded as 
the primary form of all others. 

Class-Book of Phys., Comings, p. 22, art. 4,0. 

43. It is formed by the crossing or interlacing of 
minute fibres, interwoven in every direction, so as 
to form a web-like membrane with innumerable 
small spaces, which communicate with each other. 

Id., p. 22, art. ^0. 

44. The cellular tissue is found in every part of 
the system, except in compact portions of bone, 
teeth and cartilage. Id., p. 22, art. Jfi. 

45. Its chief use seems to be to connect together 
organs and parts of organs which require a certain 
degree of motion on each other. It possesses great 
power of extensibility and elasticity. 

Id., p. 22, art. 41. 

46. Various names have been assigned to the 
cellular membrane, corresponding to the different 
positions in which it is found. When inclosing 
those organs not exposed to the air, it receives the 
name of serous membrane, from a fluid secreted in 
it, called serum. In the lining of the respiratory 



PHYSIOLOGY. 225 

passages and of the alimentary canal, it is called 
mucous membrane, from a secretion of mucous 
which is poured out from numerous glands beneath 
its surface. Where it forms a covering for the 
body, it is known as the dermoid membrane, or 
skin. Id., 'p'p. 22, 23, art 4^2. 

47. The osseous tissue, in composition and ar- 
rangement of matter, varies at different periods of 
life, and in different bones. In some instances, the 
bony matter is disposed in plates, while in other 
instances, the arrangement is cylindrical. Some- 
times, the bony matter is dense and compact ; again, 
it is spongy, or porous. 

Anat., Phys. and Hyg , Cutter, p. 23, art. 38. 

48. The muscular tissue is composed of many 
fibres, that unite to form fasciculi, each of which 
is enclosed in a delicate layer of cellular tissue. 

Id., p. 23, art. 39. 

49. The nervous tissue consists of soft, pulpy 
matter, enclosed in a sheath, called neurilema. This 
tissue consists of two substances; the one of a 
pulpy character and gray color, is called cin-e-ri- 
tious (ash-colored) ; the other, of a fibrous charac- 
ter and white, is named medullary (marrow-like). 

Id., p. 2Jf,, art. 4,1. 

50. Though the body is harmoniously united 
into a single system, it can be dissected and parts 
described separately. The following order is here 
adopted : 

(1) Osteology, or an account of the bones or 
frame work of the system. 

15 



226 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(2) Myology^ an account of the muscles or the 
moving powers of the system. 

(3) Splanchnology^ or the nutritive organs. 

(4) Angiologyj an account of the circulating 
system of the arteries and veins. 

(5) Pneumonology, or an account of the respi- 
ratory, vocal, and calorific organs. 

(6) Icho7'ology, or the lymphatic and secreting 
system. 

(7) Neurology, or the history of the nervous 
S3^stem, the vivifying power. 

(8) The inlets of the soul, or the senses. 
Hitchcock's Anatomy and Phys., pp. ^9, 30, art. 79. 

51. The bony structure is a dense, sub-fibrous 
basis, filled with minute cells, and traversed in all 
directions by branching and connected canals called 
Haversian, which give room to blood vessels and 
nerves. 

Physiology and Hygiene^ Loughborough, p. 20. 

52. The bones have three principal uses: 1. To 
protect the delicate organs ; 2. To serve as levers 
on which the muscles may act to produce motion ; 
and 3. To preserve the shape of the body. 

Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Physiology, p. 19. 

53. Bones difter in form according to the uses 
they subserve. For convenience in walking, some 
are long; for strength and compactness, some are 
short and thick ; for covering a cavity, some are 
flat; and for special purposes, some, are irregular. 

Id., p. 19. 

54. The bones are composed of both animal and 
earthy matter. 

Anat. , Phys. and Hygiene, Cutter, p. 29, art. 68. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 227 

55. The earthy portion of the bone gives them 
solidity and strength, while the animal part endows 
them with vitality. Id., p. 29, art. 68. 

56. At first, bones exist in a state of cartilage. 
Class-Book of Phys., Comings, p. 197, art. 4,05. 

57. They are gradnally converted into bones by 
a deposition of phosphate and carbonate of li,me. 

Id, p. 197, art. iOS. 

58. The lime of the earthy portion of the bones 
is continually increasing till old age, while the 
animal portion is gradually diminishing. 

id., p. 197, art. 4-06. 

59. In children, the animal matter constitutes 
about one-half; in adults, one-fifth; and in old age, 
one-eighth of the whole composition. 

Id., p. 197, art. 4O6. 

60. In children, the bones are soft and flexible, 
and admirably adapted to sustain the numerous 
falls and accidents, to which they are liable, with- 
out injury. Id., p. 197, art. 4.07. 

61. The bones do not arrive at their perfect state 
until about the twentieth year. 

Id., p. 197, art. 4O8. 

62. As the animal matter of the bones diminishes 
in old age, they become hard and brittle. 

Id., p. 197, art. 409. 

63. Human bones, when used as levers, are 
twenty-two times as strong as sandstone, three and 
one-half times as strong as lead, nearly two and 
three-fourths times as strong as elm and ash, and 
twice as strong as box, yew, and oak timber. 
Hand-Booh of Health, Loughborough, p. 21, ans. 36. 

64. There are two hundred and eight bones in 



228 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the human body, beside the teeth. Some anato- 
mists reckon more than this number, others less, 
for the reason that, at diflerent periods of life, the 
number of pieces of which one bone is formed, 
varies. 

Exmnple. — The breast bone, in infancy, has 
eight pieces; in youth, three; in old age, but one. 
Cutter's Anatomy^ Physiology and Hygiene, p. 32, 
65. The process of ossification is the deposition 
of mineral matter in the cartilage. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Hotze, p. IJf, 
^^. The deposition of mineral matter in the car- 
tilage takes place first at particular points, called 
the centres of ossification. Id., p. H, 

67. It is that bone which is called the petrous, 
which contains the organs of hearing. 

Hand-Book of Health, Loughborough, p. 23, 

68. A joint or articulation. It is by means of 
these joints that the various motions of the bones 
are easily mad^. Id., p, 38. 

69. Over two hundred, all perfectly adapted to 
their various positions and work. Id., p. 38. 

70. Ans, No. 1. Three : fixed, or such as the 
joints of the skull and upper jaw, teeth and vomer ; 
movable, such as the shoulder, hip, elbow, wrist, 
knee, ankle, carpus, and tarsus; intermediate, or 
such joints as those in the vertebral column. 

Id., p. 4-1- 
Ans. No. 2. There are several kinds of joints in 
the body, the most important of which are the 
hinge-joint at the elbow and knee, and the ball and 
socket joint at the hip and shoulder. 

Class-Book of Phys., Comings, p. 203, art. 419, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 229 

71. The opposing surfaces are coated by an elas- 
tic substance called cartilage; this is lubricated 
(oiled) by a fluid called synovia, which, is secreted 
in an enclosed membrane or bag, called synovial. 

Hand- Book of Health, Loughborough, jp. 39, 

72. Cartilage is a dense, firm substance, nearly 
related to bone, but it lacks the mineral ingredi- 
ents of bone, which makes it softer and more elas- 
tic. First Les. in Physiology, Hotze, p. SO, 

73. The chief uses of cartilage are the following : 

(1) To yield smooth surfaces for easy friction 
in the joints, and to act as a cushion in shocks. 

(2) To fasten bones together without destroy- 
ing freedom of movement, as between the verte- 
brae. 

(3) To serve as a firm yet not unyielding frame- 
work, as in the larynx and trachea. 

(4) To adapt itself to all purposes where firm- 
ness, toughness, elasticity and strength are required. 

Id., f, SO. 

74. The bones are closely covered with a very 
firm, whitish-yellow membrane, very smooth. This 
is called the periosteum. This membrane encloses 
the vessels which convey nutriment into the bones. 
It is to this periosteum that the ligaments and ten- 
dons are attached, as they can not fasten to the 
bone itself. 

Hand-Book of Health, Loughborough, pp. 4^, 4-^. 

75. They are divided, for convenience, into four 
parts : 

1st. The bones of the head. 

2d. The bones of the trunk. 

3d. The bones of the upper extremities. 



230 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

4th. The bones of the lower extremities. 
Anatomy, Phys. and Hygiene, Cutter, p. S2, art. 7^. 

76. The bones of the head are divided into those 
of the skull, ear and face. Id., p. 32, art. 75. 

77. The skull is composed of eight bones. They 
are formed of two plates, or tablets of bony matter, 
united by a porous portion of bone. 

Id. p. 32, art. 76. 

78. 1 frontal, 1 occipital, 2 temporal, 1 sphenoid, 
2 parietal, 1 ethmoid. 

Hitchcock's Anatomy and Phys., p. Ji!2, art. 106, 

79. The bones of the skull are united by ragged 
edges called Sutures. These are small and rough 
projections of bone which are largest at their ex- 
tremities, and are made to fit into the edges of the 
opposite bone with great firmness. 

Id., pp. 4,6,47. 

80. The skull is convex externally, and at the 
base much thicker than at the top or sides. 
Cutter^s Anatomy, Phys. and Hygiene, p. 32 y art. 77, 

81. In each ear are four very small bones. They 
aid in hearing. M., p. 34, cirt. 80. 

82. In the face are fourteen bones, some of which 
serve for the attachment of powerful muscles, 
which are more or less called into action in masti- 
cating food ; others retain in place the soft parts of 
the face. Id., p. 34, cert. 81, 

83. The bones of the trunk include those of the 
spinal column (back-bone), the thorax (chest), and 
the pelvis (basin). 

Human and Com. Anat., Phys. and Hyg., Cutter, p. 95. 

84. The spinal column is composed of twenty- 



PHYSIOLOGY. 231 

four bones. These are so arranged that a tube or 
canal is formed through the whole column. 

Id, p. 95, art 230, 

85. Seven of these are called cervical (neck) 
bones, twelve dorsal (back) bones, ^vq lumbar (loin) 
bones. Id., p. 95, art. 231. 

86. By a division of the spinal column into so 
large a number of separate bones, very great free- 
dom of motion is allowed, with only a slight bend 
at any particular point. 

Class-Book of Phys., Comings, p. 205, art. ^30. 

87. Each vertebrae consists of a body, which is 
situated in front of the spinal canal, and of seven 
processes or projections, which serve to form the 
spinal canal, and unite the vertebrae to each other 
by aflbrding attachments for the muscles. 

' Id., p. 205, art. 431. 

88. There are twenty-four ribs — twelve ou each 
side. Brown's Phys. and Hyg., p. 67, art. 91. 

89. The ribs form the side walls of the thorax. 

Id., p. 67, art. 91. 

90. The ribs are divided into three classes; seven 
are true ribs, three are false ribs, and two are float- 
ing ribs. Id., p. 67. 

91. Each rib has two curvatures — one of which 
bends it around the chest horizontally, and another 
which gives it a downward curvature from the 
back forward. Id., p. 67, art. 91. 

92. The ribs are united to the vertebrae by true 
joints, but forward, the true ribs join the breast- 
bone by flexible cartilages. The three false ribs 
unite to a cartilage which is common to all of them, 
and by means of which they are attached to the 



232 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

breast-bone. The floating ribs have no forward 
attacliment. Id., pp, 67, 68, art. 91, 

93. The sternum, or breast-bone, forms the front 
of the thorax. In infancy, it is in eight distinct 
pieces; in youth, three; and in old age, but one. 

Id., p. 68, art. 92. 

94. The pelvis, or lower division of the trunk, 
consists of four bones. The sacrum, the coccyx, 
and the innominatum. Id., p. 68. 

95. The upper extremities contain sixty-four 
bones — the scapula, (shoulder-blade); the clavicle, 
(collar-bone); the humerus, (first bone of the arm); 
the ulna and radius, (bones of the fore-arm); the 
carpus, (wrist) ; the metacarpus, (palm of the hand) ; 
and the 'phalanges, (fingers and thumb.) 

Cutter's Ayiatoiny, Phys. and Hygiene, p. 39, art. 96. 

96. The lower extremities contain sixty bones — 
the femur, (thigh-bone); the patella, (knee-pan;) 
the tibia, (shin-bone); the fibula, (small bone of 
the leg) ; the tarsus, (instep) ; the metatarsus, (mid- 
dle of the foot) ; and the phalanges, (toes). 

Id., p. 4.2, art. 105. 

97. A muscle is an aggregation of minute fibres, 
each of which is again composed of minute fibrils, 
held together by a delicate membrane. 

First Lessons in Physiology, Botze, p. ^8. 

98. All the motions in the animal body are per- 
formed by muscles. Generally speaking, muscles 
are the organs of motion. Id., p. 4-8. 

99. Muscular motion is exerted by means of the 
contractility of muscles. Id., p. 48. 

100. Contractility and sensibility are character- 
istic properties of muscles. Id., p. 48, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 233 

101. Contractility implies their power of con- 
tracting and relaxing. Id.^ p. J/.8. 

102. Sensibility implies their power of commu- 
nicating impressions directly to the mind. 

Id., p. 48. 

103. Muscles are of two kinds: involuntary and 
voluntary. Id ,p. 4-8. 

104. The voluntary and involuntary muscles are 
distinguished by their structure and mode of ac- 
tion. Id., p. 48, 

105. The uses of the muscles are : 

(1) To produce motion. 

(2) To hold the limbs in position. 

(3) To protect the skeleton. 

106. There are, in all, about five hundred mus- 
cles, each having its special use, and all working 
in exquisite harmony and perfection. 

Fourteen y^eeks in Phys., Steele^ p. 4-3. 

107. The muscles are arranged in pairs, each 
with its antagonist, so that as they contract and 
expand alternately, the bone to which they are at- 
tached is moved to and fro. Id., pp. 43, 44- 

108. The ends of the muscles are generally at- 
tached to the bone by strong, flexible, but inelastic 
tendons. Id., p. 45. 

109. The effect of exercise upon a muscle is very 
marked. By use it grows larger, and becomes 
hard, compact and darker-colored; by disuse it de- 
creases in size, and becomes soft, flabby, and pale. 

Id., p. 62. 

110. The digestive organs are the mouth, teeth, 
salivary glands, pharynx, oesophagus (gullet), stom- 
ach, intestines (bowels), lacteals (milk, or chyle ves- 



234 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sels), thoracic duct, liver, and' the pancreas (sweet- 
bread). 
Cutter's Anat., Phys. and Hygiene, p. 113, art. 235, 

111. The mouth is an irregular cavit}^ which 
contains the instruments of mastication and the or- 
gans of taste. It is bounded in front by the lips; 
on each side by the internal surface of the cheeks; 
above, by the hard "palate and teeth of the upper 
jaw; below, by the tongue and teeth of the low^er 
jaw; behind, it is continuous with the pharynx, 
but is separated from it by a kind of movable cur- 
tain called the soft palate. 

Id., pp. 113, lU, art. 236. 

112. The salivary glands are six in number, three 
on each side of the jaw. They are called the parotid^ 
the suh-maxillary, and the sub-lingual. 

Id., p. m, art. 237. 

113. The pharynx is a short and somewhat ir- 
regular tubular cavity, into w^hich the mouth opens 
behind, serving as a portion of the canal from the 
mouth to the stomach. It also communicates with 
both ears, with the nostrils and lungs, by passages 
which open directly into it. 

Hitchcock's Anat. and Phys., pp. 156, JS7, art. 292. 

114. The pharynx terminates in the esophagus 
(meaning the passage for conveying the food). 
This is a long and narrow tube, made up of two 
muscular coats, which terminates in the stomach 
by the cardiac orifice. It is smaller in size than 
the pharynx, and contains a great number of min- 
ute glands which secrete an oily fluid when the 
food is passing through it. 

Id., pp. 157, 158, art. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 235 

115. The stomach in man is an oblong membran- 
ous bag. 

Class-Book of Anatomy, Coming, jp. 80, art. 163. 

116. It is placed obliquely across the abdomen, 
and just below the diaphragm. 

Id., p. 80, art. 163. 

117. The average capacity in the adult is about 
one quart, though it may be distended to contain a 
much larger quantity, or be contracted to a' very 
small size. Id., p. 80. 

118. It has two openings — one towards the 
heart, called the cardiac orifice, which receives the 
food from the esophagus — and the other at the 
right or small end of the stomach, called the pyloric 
orifice, for the transmission of food to the small in- 
testines. Id., p. 80, art. 163. 

119. The stomach possesses three coats — the 
outer or serous, the middle or muscular, and the 
inner or mucous. Id., p. 80, art. 164-. 

120. The lacteals are a class of vessels communi- 
cating with the mucous surface of the intestines 
and carry a milky fluid containing the nutritious 
part of the food in a dissolved state. The lacteals, 
in their pillisage through the mesentery, form clus- 
ters called mesenteric glands, in which the lacteal 
fluid undergoes an important change, by which it 
acquires many of the properties of blood. 

Brown's Phys. and Hyg., pp. 27, 28, art. 34.. 

121. The intestines, or alimentary canal, are di- 
vided into two parts — the small and large The 
small intestine is about twenty-five feet in length, 
and is divided into three portions, namely, the 
duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The larger 



236 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

intestine is about five feet in length, and is divided 
into three parts, namely, the coecum, the colon, and 
the rectum. 
Cutter's Anat., Phys. and Hygiene, p, 117, art ^^4,. 

122. The liver, a gland appended to the alimen- 
tary canal, is the largest organ in the system, and 
weighs about four pounds. It is situated in the 
right side, below the diaphragm, and is composed 
of several lobes. Its upper surface is convex; its 
under concave. This organ is retained in its place 
by several ligaments. It performs the double office 
of separating impurities from the venous blood, 
and secreting a fluid (bile) necessary to chylifica- 
tion. Id., p. 122, art. 264,. 

123. The pancreas is a long, flattened gland, 
analogous to the salivary glands. It is about six 
inches in length, weighs three or four ounces, and 
is situated transversely across the posterior wall of 
the abdomen, behind the stomach. 

Id., pp. 122, 123, art. 255, 

124. The human body is composed largely of 
combinations of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and 
oxygen ; hence, our food must contain these ele- 
ments. First Lessons in Phys., Hotz'e, p. 126. 

125. Food may be called that substance which, 
when within the body, supplies material which re- 
news lost tissue or supports some process of life. 

Id., J). 126. 

126. Food consists of organic and inorganic ma- 
terials. Id., p. 129. 

127. Organic food comprises (1) nitrogenous sub- 
stances ; (2) fats ; (3) compounds of carbon and 
hydrogen, such as sugar or starch. Id., p. 126, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 237 

128. Inorganic food comprises water, and alka- 
lies, such as salt and phosphates. Id., p. 126. 

129. The changes wrought upon the food in the 
body are, (1) digestion, or the proper preparation 
of food in the alimentary canal ; (2) assimilation, 
or the conversion of food into blood and tissues; 
(3) excretion, or the decomposition of food. 

Id., J). S27, 

130. Digestion comprises (1) mastication ; (2) in- 
ealivation ; (3) deglutition; (4) stomach-digestion; 
(5) digestion in the intestines. Id, p. 127. 

131. The chief functions of the stomach are, (1) 
to mix the food into a pulp; (2) to dissolve the ni- 
trogenous portion of the food by means of the gas- 
tric juice. Id., p. 127. 

132. The chief conditions favorable to stomach 
digestion are, (1) temperature of 100° F., nearly; 

(2) continual motion of the walls of the stomach ; 

(3) the removal of thoroughly digested portions of 
food from the stomach ; (4) previous perfect masti- 
cation and insalivation of the food ; (5) a moderate 
quantity of food; (6) regular intervals between 
meals; (7) no severe physical or mental exertion 
immediately before or after a meal; (8) a tranquil 
mind ; (9) bodily health ; (10) favorable weather. 

Id., p. 127. 

133. The digestive fluids are (1) the saliva; (2) 
the gastric juice; (3) the bile; (4) the pancreatic 
juice; (5) the intestinal juice. Id., p. 128. 

134. Functions of the saliva : 

(1) Softening the food ; (2) Converting starch 
into sugar ; (3) mingling the food with air. 

Id., p. 128. 



238 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

135. Functions of the gastric juice : Dissolving 
albuminous and other substances. Id., p. 128. 

136. Functions of the bile : 

(1) Absorbing waste material from the blood; 
(2) Dissolving fatty portions of food ; (3) Stimu- 
lating the action of the intestines. Id., jp. 128. 

137. Functions of rtie pancreatic juice : 

(1) Digesting fats; (2) Dissolving albuminous 
substances. Id., jp. 128. 

138. That of digesting albuminous matter. 

Id., p. 128. 

139. Chyme is composed of (1) albuminous mat- 
ter; (2) fatty matter; (3) starch ; (4) gastric juice. 

Id., p. 129. 

140. After its union with bile, chyme is usually 
called chyle. Id., p. 129. 

141. The object of absorption is (1) to supply the 
blood with fresh materials; (2) to remove waste 
particles. Id., p. 129. 

142. Absorption is effected by blood-vessels (cap- 
illaries) and by lacteals (or lymphatics). 

Id., p. 129. 

143. Absorption by blood-vessels takes place 
chiefly in the stomach and the intestinal canal. 
These absorbed materials are conveyed to veins. 

Id., p. 129. 

144. Absorption by lacteals takes place in the 
small intestine b}^ minute vessels called villi; these 
lead the absorbed chyle into the lacteals or lym- 
phatic vessels, whence it is conveyed through the 
lymphatic glands to the thoracic duct, and thence 
thrown into veins. Id., p. 129. 

145. The lymphatic system of the body has its 



PHYSIOLOGY. 239 

ramifications throughout the body simihir to tlie 
system of blood-vessels, from which it differs in 
this, that its fluid is lymph, and flows in only one 
direction. Id.^ p. 129. 

146. By the aid of respiration, the chyle is Anally 
made into blood. JcL, p. 129. 

147. The organs composing the circulatory s^^s- 
tem are the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. 

Hitchcock's Anat. and Phys. p. 201, art. 365. 

148. The heart, or central engine of circulation, 
is located in the thorax or chest, resting by its 
lower surface on the diaphragm, and somewhat to 
the left of the middle line of the body. It is of a 
conical form, made of animal muacnlar flbre, the 
fibers crossing themselves in at least three direc- 
tions. The heart is a double organ, one side being 
called the arterial and the other the venous, or lett 
and right hearts, since the former receives and pro- 
pels the pure or arterial blood, while the latter cir^ 
culates venous blood. Again, each of the two sides 
or hearts is divided into an auricle and a ventri- 
cle. Each of these four cavities will ordinarily 
contain about three fluid ounces, making the whole 
heart to contain nearly a pint. Id., pp. 201, 202. 

149. The auricles differ in muscularity from tlie 
ventricles. Their walls are thinner, and of a blu- 
ish color. These cavities are a kind of reservoir, 
designed to contain the blood arriving by the veins. 

Cutter^ s Anat., Phys. and Hyg., p. 156, art, 336. 

150. The ventricles not only have their walls 
thicker than the auricles, but they differ in their 
internal structure. From the interior of these cav- 
ities arise fleshy columns, called columnce cariiece. 



240 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

The walls of the left ventricle are thicker and 
stronger than those of the right. Id., pp. 156, 157. 

151. The cavities in the right side of the heart 
are triangular in shape ; those of the left oval. 

Id., p. 167, art. 338. 

152. Between the auricle and ventricle in the 
right side of the heart, there are three folds, or 
doublings, of thin, triangular membrane, called the 
tricuspid valves. Id., p. 157, art. 338. 

153. Between the auricle and ventricle in the 
left side, there are two valves called the mitral. 

Id., p. 157, art. 338. 

154. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise 
to the pulmonary artery; the left ventricle, to a 
large artery called the aorta. Id., p. 157, art. 339. 

155. At the commencement of each of these ar- 
teries there are three folds of membrane, and from 
their shape, they are called semi-lunar valves. 

Id., p. 157. 

156. The valves are muscular fibers arranged in 
such a form that the blood can pass through them ; 
but the contracting of the ventricle presses the 
blood back against the valve and closes it so that 
the blood can not pass back again. The same con- 
traction of the muscles of the ventricle forces the 
valves open out into the arteries, and the pressure 
of the blood in the artery closes the valve again. 

Hand-Book of Health, Loughborough, p. 64- 

157. The heart is supplied with arteries and 
veins, which ramify between its muscular fibers, 
through which its nutrient blood passes. It has, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 241 

likewise, a few lymphatics, a!id many small nervous 
filaments from the sympathetic system of nerves. 
Cutter's Anatomy, Pfvjs. and Hyg., p. 157, art. olfi, 

158. The heart, in its natural state, exhibits but 
slight indications of sensibility, and although nearly 
destitute of the sensation of touch, it is yet, how- 
ever, instantly affected by every painful bodily ex- 
citement, or strong mental emotions. 

/d,p. 157, art slo. 

159. The circulation consists of two parts : 1. 
Great or systemic circulation ; 2. Lesser or pul- 
monary circulation. Commencing, we will sup- 
pose, with the left ventricle, the blood is impelled 
through the semi-lunar valves into the aorta, and 
along its successive branches to the microscopic 
net-w^ork of the capillaries, which ramify through, 
all the tissues of the body. In the capillaries, the 
blood parts with its nutritive elements, becomes 
venous, and is collected into the small veins, and" 
flows through their converging branches into the 
main trunks, the venje cav?e, and finally into the 
right auricle. From the right auricle it is emptied 
through the tricuspid valves into the right ventricle. 
This completes the great or systemic circulation. 
From the right ventricle the blood is impelled 
through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary 
artery, and along its branches to the capillaries of 
the lungs, to be exposed to the action of the air. 
From the pulmonary capillaries the blood enters in 
converging streams the pulmonary veins, which 
carry it to the left auricle, and this completes the 
lesser or pulmonary circulation. It is then emptied 

16 



242 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

through the bicuspid valves into the left ventricle, 
where it started on its course. 
Class-Book of Phys., Comings, p. 4,1, arts. 75, 76. 

160. The force which propels the blood through 
the body lies in the substance of the heart. Its 
assistants in this are : 1st, the elastic walls of the 
arteries; 2d, the muscular pressure upon some of 
the veins; 3d, the contraction and expansion of the 
chest in breathing 

First Les. in Phys., Hotze, p. 71, art. 2S. 

161. The movements of the heart consist of an 
alternate contraction and expansion. The former 
is called the systole, and the latter the diastole. 
During the diastole the blood flows into the heart, 
to be expelled by the systole. The alternation of 
these movements constitutes the beating of the heart. 

Fourteen Weeks in Phys., Steele, p. 110. 

162. The veins are the vessels which return the 
blood to the auricles of the heart after it has been 
circulated by the arteries through the various tis- 
sues of the body. They are thinner and more del- 
icate in structure than the arteries, so that when 
emptied of their blood, they become flattened and 
collapsed. 

Anat. , Phys. and Hyg. , Cutter, pp. 160, 161, art. 34.6, 

163. The veins commence by minute radicles in 
the capillaries, which are everywhere distributed 
through the textures of the body, and coalesce to 
constitute larger and larger branches, till they ter- 
minate in the large trunks which convey the dark- 
colored blood directly to the heart. 

Id., p. 161, art. 346, 

164. The external, or cellular coat of the veins, 



PHYSIOLOGY. 243 

is dense and firm, resembling the cellular tunic of 
the arteries. The middle coat is fibrous, like that 
of the arteries, but extremely thin. The internal 
coat is serous and also similar to that of the arte- 
ries. It is continuous with the lining membrane 
of the lieart at one extremity, and with the lining 
membrane of the capillaries at the other. " 

Id., 2?. 161, art. 3iS. 

165. The arteries are the cylindrical tubes that 
convey the blood from the heart to every part of 
the system. Id., p. 158, art. 8^1. 

166. They are dense in structure, and preserve, 
for the most part, the cylindrical form, w*hen emp- 
tied of their blood, which is their condition after 
death. Id., p, 158, art. 3^1, 

167. The arteries are composed of three coats. 
The external, or cellular coat, is firm and strong; 
the middle, or fibrous coat, is composed of yellow- 
ish fibers. This coat is elastic, fragile, and thicker 
than the external coat. The internal coat is a thin, 
serous membrane, which lines the interior of the 
arter}', and gives it the smooth polish which that 
surface presents. Id., p. 158, art. 34-^. 

168. The capillaries constitute a microscopic net 
work, and are so distributed through every part of 
the body as to render it impossible to introduce the 
smallest needje beneath the skin, without wound- 
ing several of these fine vessels. 

Id., p. 163, art. 350. 

169. The capillaries are remarkable for the uni- 
formity of diameter, and for the constant divisions 
and communications which take place between 
them. Id., p. 163, art. 350. 



244 THE NORiMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

170. The capillaries inosculate, on the one hana, 
with the terminal extremity of the arteries, and on 
the other, with the commencement of the veins. 
They establish the communication between the 
termination of the arteries and the beginning of 
the veins. Id , p. 163, art. 351, 

171. The important operations of secretion and 
the conversion of the nutrient materials of the 
blood into bone, muscle, etc., are performed in 
these vessels. Jc?., p. 163, art. 351. 

172. Animal blood, after standing for some time, 
contains 1st, red and white corpuscles; 2d, animal 
librine; ^d, water; and 4th, albumen. The lirst 
two form the clot, the remaining two the serum. 
The blood contains dissolved within it three gases : 
Carbonic acid, oxygen, and a small quantity of 
nitrogen. One hundred volumes contain about 50 
volumes of these gases collectively. 

First Lessons in Phys., Hotze, p. 70, arts. 11, 18. 

173. The specitic gravity of blood = 1, very 
nearly ; its temperature = 100° F., nearly. 

Id., J). 70, art. 12. 

174. The living body contains a quantity of 
blood of about one- tenth of its own weight. 

Id., J). 70, art. 13. 

175. Ans. No. 1. The use of the red corpuscles 
seems to be to convey oxygen from the lungs to all 
parts of the body. Id., p. 70, art. 17. 

Ans. No. 2. The function of the red corpus- 
cles seems to be to convey oxygen to the tissues, 
and as this is the agent which is continually pro- 
moting the change or waste of the system, these 
corpuscles seem to be the great agents for disassim- 



PHYSIOLOGY. 245 

ilating the tissues and the blood itself. The color- 
less or white corpuscles seem to be the agents by 
which the repair of the body is effected, since they 
are greatly augmented in number when there is a 
large wound to be healed, or when there is a great 
amount of internal or external inflammation. 

Bitchcock's Anat. and Phys., p. 2^8, art. ^03, 

176. Tiie red blood corpuscles difter from the 
white in this, that they are smaller in size, but 
larger in number, and of a less changeable nature. 

First Les. in Phys., Hotze, p. 70, art. 16, 

177. The follow^ing are four uses of the blood: 

(1) It feeds the different parts of the body, 
which depend upon it for their maintenance. 

(2) It provides the entire body with warmth 
and moisture. 

(3) It carries oxygen to the tissues which 
need this gas. 

(4) It gathers refuse matters throughout the 
body, and conveys them to places whence the}^ may 
be discharged. Id., p. 71, art. 19. 

178. The respiratory organs are the lungs [lights], 
the trachea (wind-pipe), the bronchia (sub-divisions 
of the trachea), and the air- vesicles (air-cells at the 
extremities of the bronchia). 

Cutter's Anat , Phys. and Hyrj , p. W9, art. 4.64.. 

179. The diaphragm (mid-riff*), ribs, and several 
muscles, also aid in the respiratory process. 

Id., p. W9, art. 46^. 

180. They are two conical-shaped organs, occu- 
pying the cavity of the chest on each side of the 
heart, from which they are separated by a mem- 
branous partition, the mediastinum. Their color 



246 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

18 pinkish gray marked with black. Each lung is 
divided into two lobes by a long, deep Ussure. In 
the right lung the upper lobe is subdivided by a 
second fissure. The air cells in each lobe commu- 
nicate with each other, but not with those of an- 
other lobe. The lungs rest on the convex surface 
of the diaphragm. The root of each lung comprises 
the pulmonary artery and veins, and bronchial 
tubes, with the bronchial vessels and pulmonary 
plexuses of nerves. They are comprised of rami- 
fications of the bronchial tubes, terminating in in- 
tercellular passages and air cells. It is supposed 
that there are not less than one hundred million 
air cells in the lungs. The mucous membrane of 
the lungs presents an extent of surface of twenty- 
one thousand square inches ; supposed to be greater 
than the entire surface of the skin of the body. 
All the air tubes, vessels, and nerves of the lungs 
are closely knit together into one general texture, 
by a delicate cellular tissue, and the whole mass, 
on each side, is enveloped in the serous membrane 
as an external coat. 
Hand-Book of Healthy Loughborough, jyp. 11^8 , H9, 

181. The trachea is a cartilaginous tube about 
one inch in diameter, made up of from fifteen to 
twenty cartilaginous rings, commencing at a point 
nearly opposite the fifth cervical vertebra, and ex- 
tending as low as the second dorsal, or top of the 
sternum, where it divides into two bronchi extend- 
ing to each lung. These segments of the trachea 
are not perfect rings, since they complete only 
about five-sixths of a circle, the remaining sixth 



PHYSIOLOGY. 24T 

consisting of smooth or involuntary muscular 

iil)er. 

Hitchcock's Anat., Phys. and Hyg.y pp. ^4^, ^4-^, art. 

182. An air cell is a thin and elastic, funnel- 
shaped membrane of about -^^ of an inch in diame- 
ter. Hotze's First Lessons in Phys., p. S^, art. 5. 

183. The capillaries in the lungs serve to expose 
the blood to the action of the air. This is done by 
(1) spreading it over a large surface, (2) spreading 
it in thin streams, (3) protecting it by merely a 
delicate cover. Jd.,p. 84, art. 6. 

184. The main difference between arterial and 
venous blood, is that the latter contains Icvss oxygen 
but more carbonic acid gas than the former. 

Id., p. 84, art. 1. 

185. Respiration, or breathing, is that process by 
which air is taken into the lungs and expelled from 
them. 

Cutter's Anat., Phys. and Hyg., p. 217, art. 475. 

186. The object of respiration is, 1st. To supply 
the system with oxygen, which is essential to the 
generation of animal heat; 2d. To convert the 
chyle into blood. This is done by the oxygen of 
the inspired air; 3d. To relieve the organs of the 
body of the principal elements (carbon and hydro- 
gen) that compose the old and useless particles of 
matter. Id., p. 217, art. 475. 

187. (1) The volume of air ordinarily present in 
the lungs is about twelve pints. 

(2) The volume of air received by the lungs 
at an ordinary inspiration is one pint. 

(3) The volume of air expelled from the 



248 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

lungs at an ordinary expiration is a little less than 
one pint. 

(4) Of the volume of air received by the 
lungs at one inspiration, only one-fourth part is 
decomposed at one action of the heart. 

(5) The quantity of blood that flows to the 
lungs, to be acted upon by the air at one action of 
the heart, is two ounces, and this is acted upon in 
less than one second of time. 

(6) The quantity of blood in the whole body 
of the human adult, is twenty-iive pounds avoir- 
dupois, or twenty pints. 

(7) In the mutual action that takes place be- 
tween the air and blood, every twenty-four hours, 
the air loses thirty-seven ounces of oxygen, and 
the blood fourteen ounces of carbon. 

Id, p. 223, art. ^85. 
188. Three points in common : 

(1) Both operate by expansion and contrac- 
tion. 

(2) Both are involuntary organs; that is, on 
ordinary occasions they act independently^ of the 
will. 

(3) Both are indispensable to the mainten- 
ance of life. 

Three points of difference: 

(1) The lungs contain air ; the heart contains 
blood. 

(2) The lungs contain bronchial tubes, air- 
cells and blood-vessels; the heart has two parts, 
called the right and left side, each part being again 
divided into auricle and ventricle. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 249 

(3) The lungs purify the blood; the heart 
propels the blood throu.c^h the body. 

First Lessons in Phijs., Hotze^ p. S6^ art. 16, 

189. The organs which produce animal heat are 
essentially those employed in the act of breathing 
and the circulation of the blood. 

Hitchcock's Anat., Phys. and Hyg.^p. SoG, art.4S5. 

190. The theory which now is most readily ac- 
cepted makes the function of animal heat to be a 
cheniico-vital one, or a chemical change (oxydiza- 
tion) dependent upon vital energy, being nearly 
analogous to the burning of a candle or the com- 
bustion of wood and coal in the stove. 

Id., pp. 256, 2b7, art. 4.65. 

191. The temperature of the human system is 98° 
F., and this it is invariably found to be in all cli- 
mates and seasons, when the individual is in per- 
fect health. Id., p. 257, art. 457. 

192. The manner in which the body is kept at 
the uniform temperature of 98°, is a subject of deep 
interest. It is partly accomplished by radiation, 
since the body is ordinarily warmer than the air 
about it, and also partly by inhaling the cool air 
into the air passages. Id., p. 258, art. 458. 

193. The larynx in all animals is the essential 
organ for the production of the voice. 

Id., p. 259, art. 459. 

194. A cartilaginous tube, imperfectly conical, 
the base directed upwards, made up of distinct por- 
tions or segments slightly movable upon one an- 
other, and with a certain portion of the channel 
lengthened into a narrow and elongated opening, 
constitutes a larynx. Id.^ p, 259, art. 4^59. 



250 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

195. Across the middle of the larynx is a trans- 
verse partition, formed by two folds of the lining 
mucous membrane, stretching from either side, but 
not quite meeting in the middle line. They thus 
leave, in the middle line, a chink or slit, running 
from tlie front to the back, called the glottis. The 
two edges of tins slit are not round and flabby, but 
sliarp, and, so to speak, clean cut; they are also 
strengtliened by a quantity of elastic tissue, the 
libers of which are disposed lengthwise in them. 
These sharp, free edges of the glottis are the so- 
called vocal cords or vocal ligaments, 

Phys. and Hyg., Huxley ^ Yoiimcuis, j). W5^ art. 228, 

196. The essential conditions of the production 
of the Innnan voice are: (a) The existence of the 
so-called vocal chords, {h) The parallelism of the 
edges of these chords, without which they will not 
vibrate in such a manner as to give out sound, (c) 
A certain degree of lightness of the vocal chords, 
without which they will not vibrate quickly enough 
to produce sound, (d) The passage of a current 
of air between the parallel edges of the vocal chords 
of sufficient power to set the chords vibrating. 

Id., f. 20^, art. 222. 

197. The secretory organs are exhalants, follicles, 
and glands. 

Cutter s Ancd., Phys. emd Hyej.^ p. 192, art. 4-15, 

198. The exhalants were supposed to be termina- 
tions of arteries or capillaries. The external exha- 
lants terminate on the skin and mucous mem- 
branes; the internal in the cellular and medullary 
tissues. Id., p. 192, art. 4,16. 

199. The follicles are small bags, or sacs, situated 



PHYSIOLOGY. 251 

in the true skin and mucons membrane. The 
pores seen on the skin are the outlets of these 
bodies. Id., j). 192, art. 4,17. 

200. The glands are soft, fleshy organs, and as 
various in their structure as the secretions, which 
it is their function to produce. Each gland is com- 
pqtsed of many small lobules united in a compact 
and distinct mass, that communicates by a small 
duct with the principal outlet, or duct of the organ. 
Every gland is supplied with arteries, veins, lym- 
phatics, and nerves. Id., p. 193, art. Ifl8. 

201. Secretion is one of the most obscure and 
mysterious functions of the animal economy. *' It 
is that process by which various substances are 
separated from the blood, either with or without 
experiencing any change during their separation." 

Id., pp. 193, 194. 

202. The skin is the external covering of the 
body. It consists of two layers — the outside skin 
or the epidermis, and the inner one or dermis. 

First Lessons in Phys., Hotze, p. SI. 

203. The epidermis serves to protect the sensi- 
tive lower skin or dermis, and to moderate the 
evaporation of fluid from the blood vessels. The 
dermis serves to invest the excretory glands; 
on its surface are the sensitive touch-corpuscles. 
Tiie dermis is the deeper portion of the skin ; it is 
denser, more elastic and more tender than the epi- 
dermis. Wlien cut it bleeds very freelj', while the 
latter does not bleed at all Id., pp. SI, S2. 

204. The general properties of the skin are tough- 
ness, flexibility and elasticity. Id., p. S2, 

205. Owing to its toughness, it serves as the pro- 



252 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tecting cover of the body ; in virtue of its flexibility, 
it shields the inner parts from violence; and, ou 
account of its elasticity, it yields readily to the 
movements of the bod}'. It is also the principal 
or^an of touch. Id., p. S2. 

206. The hair and nails are peculiar forms of the 
epidermis. The former is composed of hor^y 
scales and cells, closely packed together. 

Id., p. 52. 

207. The secretion of the skin consists of two 
different fluids, one oily, the other watery. The^ 
oily one is secreted mostly in the scalp and the face, 
where the skin is largely supplied with hair. The 
other is called perspiration or sweat, the two terms 
being habitually taken synonymously, although 
there is this diflerence between them: perspiration 
is an insensible excretion, which evaporates on the 
skin ; sweat is a sensible secretion, composed of the 
same fluid as the other, but appearing on the skin 
in the form of drops. Id., pp. 52, 53. 

208. Functions of the nervous s^^stem : 

(1) It connects the different parts and organs 
of the body into an organic unit or whole. 

(2) It animates or governs all movements of 
the muscles, whether voluntary or not. 

(3) It regulates the temperature, nutrition 
and secretion of the body. 

(4) It controls the processes of the organic 
life of the body. 

(5) It receives impressions which are gener- 
ated by its terminal branches. 

(6) It conveys impressions to diflTerent por- 
tions of the body. 



PHYSIOLOGY. 253 

(7) It can generate influences which no ontor 
organ or system can produce, such as sight, smell or 
taste. By means of this function, it puts the body 
in direct communication with the other world. 

Id., f, U2. 

209. The nervous system, although a continuous 
substance, is conveniently subdivided into two sys- 
tems: (1) The cerebro-spinal system; and (2) The 
sympathetic system. LL, p. 132. 

210. The cerebro-spinal system comprises the 
cerebro-spinal axis, that is, the brain and the spinal 
cord, together with the cerebral and spinal nerves 
which emanate from this axis. Id , p. 132, 

211. The sympathetic system contains the chain 
of sympathetic ganglia and tlie nerves which they 
give off. Id., pp. 132, 133. 

212. The brain is a very soft substance, forming 
in man the enhirged upper terminus of the spinal 
cord. It is encased in the cavitv of the cranium, 
which it fills, and from which it is difiicult to be 
extracted entire. The brain substance of man gen- 
erally varies in weight from forty to sixty ounces, 
and it is universally adnntted that, as a rule, the 
quantit}^ of brain substance corresponds to the in- 
tellectual powers of the individual, although it is 
believed that the quality of this substance also 
plays an important part. The brain consists of 
cells and fibers which are rendered visible only by 
a good microscope. Id., p. 133. 

213. The brain is divided into the large brain or 
cerebrum, the small brain or cerebellum — only one- 
eighth as large as the former — and the enlarged 
spinal cord or medulla oblongata. Id., p. 133. 



254 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

214. The cerebrum and cerebellum consist each 
of two hemispheres, one on the right, the other on 
the left side. The surface of the cerebrum is cov- 
ered with a great man}^ foldings and windings or 
convolutions, irregular in form and direction ; these 
are separated from each other by deep furrows. 
The cerebellum also has convolutions, but they are 
of a more regular form and direction. IcL^ p. IS^. 

215. The spinal cord is the downward continua- 
tion of the medulla oblongata. It is a soft sub- 
stance, contained in a bony cavity, formed by the 
vertebral column or back-bone. It extends nearly 
to the sacrum; it is furrowed like the brain into 
two lateral, symmetric parts. Between these two 
parts — that is, in the centre of the cord and 
through its entire length — runs a fine canal, which 
originates in a point between the cerebellum and 
the medulla oblongata. Id.,p. 13^. 

216. The cerebro spinal nerves originate in both 
the brain and the spinal cord, whence they ramify 
and spread all over tlie body. They have the form 
of fibers and cells. Id., p. ISJf., 

217. The sympathetic S3^stera consists, like the 
brain, of cells and fibers. It is situated in front 
and at the sides of the spinal column ; its ganglia 
or nerve cells are connected with one another, and 
with the spinal nerves by nerve-cords. 

Id,, p. 135, 

218. The nervous system appears to be composed 
of two distinct substances — the gray and the white. 
In the cerebrum and cerebellum the white substance 
is contained within the gray; in the medulla ob- 
longata and spinal cord the gray substance is en- 



PHYSIOLOGY. 255 

closed in the white. The nervous fibres and tubes 
are wliite ; the cells are gray. Id.^ p. 136. 

219. The main functions of the cerebrum seem 
to be the manifestation of intellectual powers and 
the will. Id^ J), US. 

220. The functions of the cerebellum seem to 
consist in the regulation of muscular movements. 

Id,, p. US. 

221. The function of the medulla oblongata is to 
generate and control the motions of respiration and 
deglutition. Id., p. l^S. 

222. The functions of the spinal cord are (1) to 
transmit sensitive impressions from its outer nerves 
to the brain ; (2) to transmit the manifestations of 
the will from the brain to the spinal motor nerves ; 
(3) to originate nerve-force independently of the 
brain w^henever a stimulus is applied. 

Id., p. US. 

223. The functions of the sympathetic system 
seem to be, to control the action of the alimentary 
canal, the glands, the blood-vessels and the heart. 

Id., p. 14.3. 

224. IN'erves are generally endowed with motor 
and sensory properties, and others which serve the 
purpose of generating sensations. Id., p. I4.S. 

225. Sensory organs are tools, or instruments, 
capable (1) of receiving impressions from the outer 
w^orld, and (2) of making us conscious of those 
impressions. They are merely the peculiarly shaped 
termination of a particular nerve. They are five 
in number, viz; that of sight, hearing, touch, taste 
and smell. Id., pp. l^,^,, 1 45. 

226. The structure of the sense of touch consists 



256 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

in nerves, which are spread out under the epider- 
mis, and within the dermis or cutis. Id., p. IJfB, 

227. The structure of the sense of taste consists 
of papillae spread over the tongue and portions of 
the cavity of the mouth. These papillse are the 
terminations of certain nerves coming from the 
brain. Id., f. 14.8. 

228. The structure of the sense of smell consists 
in olfactory nerves, which are spread over the in- 
terior surface of the nasal cavity. Id., p. I48, 

229. Tlie structure of the sense of sisrlit consists 
in two eye-balls, each of which comprises, (1) 
three distinct coats, and (2) an optical apparatus. 

Id., p. 163. 

230. The three coats of the eye-ball are: 

(1) The sclerotic coat. 

(2) The choroid coat. 

(3) The retina. Id., p. 163, 

231. The optical apparatus is made up of: 

(1) The cornea. 

(2) The aqueous humor. 

(3) The crystalline lens. 

(4) The vitreous humor. Id., p. 16If,. 

232. The structure of the sense of hearing con- 
sists of two ears, each of which comprises : 

(1) The outer ear. 

(2) The middle ear. 

(3) The inner ear or labyrinth. Id.,p. 16^. 

233. The outer ear is peculiarly adapted to col- 
lect and transmit waves of sound. Id, , p. 165. 

234. The middle ear consists of (1) the external 
tube and (2) the drum or tympanum. These are 
separated from each other by the tympanic mem- 



PHYSIOLOGY. iJ57 

brane. The drum coatains three small bones; the 
hammer, the anvil and the stapes. Id.y p. 165. 

235. The labyrinth or inner ear consists of the 
vestibule, three semi-circular canals, and the coch- 
lea. The labyrinth is filled with liquids, in which 
are floating the terminal fibres and filaments of the 
auditory nerve. Id.y p. 165. 



17 



258 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 
TEACHING. 



1. What does the theory and practice of teach- 
ing embrace ? 

2. Of what does school economy treat? 

3. Define methods of instruction. 

4. What do you understand by methods of cul- 
tu re ? 

5. What could be treated of under the history 
of education ? 

6. What should be taken into consideration in 
making preparations for the school ? 

7. What should be taken into consideration in 
selecting a site for a school-house ? 

8. What do you consider to be the requisites of 
'good school-grounds? 

9. State the objects of graded schools. 

10. What branches of 'knowledge should be 
taught in primary schools? 

11. Give a list of grammar school studies. 

12. What branches should be embraced in the 
high school course ? 

13. Upon what should the size of a school-house 
depend ? 

14. What is the best form for school-houses? 



TEACHING. 259 

15. IIdw should a school-house be warmed ? 

16. How should a school-room be ventilated? 

17. With what farniture should a school-house 
be provided ? 

18. With what apparatus should schools be sup- 
plied? 

19. Of what use are school records? 

20. What is meant by the organization of a 
school ? 

21. Give an outline of work preliminary to the 
organization of a school. 

22. What advantages will be gained by forming 
acquaintances of parents and pupils before the 
opening of the school? 

23. What should be the chief business of the 
teacher on the first day of school ? 

24. Give directions that should be observed 
closely daring the first day of school. 

25. How should a school be oJ3ened? 

26. How many and what grades should there be 
in the public schools? 

27. What are the advantages of a programme? 

28. What are employments of a school? 

29. What are the objects of study? 

30. By what principles should incentives to study 
be tested ? 

31. Name incentives to study which are of doubt- 
ful propriety. 

32. What are proper incentives to study? 

33. What are the objects of education? 

34. Since the recitation must embrace the objects 
of education, what may be considered the ends of 
the recitation? 



260 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

35. How should the recitation be conducted? 
86. What might be considered requisites for the 
recitation ? 

37. What preparation should the teacher make 
for the recitation? 

38. Why is it necessary to take exercise? 

39. Define school government. 

40. Under what heads may school government 
be embraced ? 

41. Define ethics. 

42. Define school ethics. 

43. IN'ame the important factors in the school. 

44. What maybe considered as some of the most 
important qualifications of the teacher ? 

45. What may be considered as the school duties 
of pupils? 

46. Define discipline. 

47. Into how many and what species may school 
government be resolved? » 

48. What may be considered as proper penalties? 

49. What may be considered as improper penal- 
ties ? 

50. What things should the teacher avoid? 

51. What things should every teacher perform? 

52. What is education ? 

53. What is teaching? 

54. What is learning? 

55. In what divisions are the faculties of the 
mind comprised ? 

56. What faculty comes first in the natural order 
of development? 

57. How is the intellect developed ? 

58. What are the sources of knowledge? 



TEACHING. 261 

59. What is that knowledge called which man 
derives through the senses? 

60. What does this knowledge include? 

61. What is that knowledge called which is de- 
rived through reason ? 

62. What does this knowledge include ? 

63. What should a system of education have for 
its object? 

64. What conditions does teaching presuppose ? 

65. What does education do for the individual? 

66. What does education do for a people? 

67. What are some of the most common evils of 
our schools? 

68. What should form the foundation for a sys- 
tem of teaching? 

69. Give a classification of the elements of peda- 
gogics. 

70. What other names are sometimes applied to 
these elements? 

71. Into what divisions is physical education di- 
vided? 

72. Define diatetics. 

73. Define gymnastics. 

74. What is the special direction which the ac- 
tivity of apprehending intelligence takes? 

75. When is the perceptive faculty most active? 

76. When is the conceptive faculty most.active? 

77. When is the thinking faculty most active? 

78. From the foregoing, what epochs may be 
distinguished? 

79. What appears in the act of learning? 

80. Give the names of some of the most impor- 
tant educational reformers. 



262 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON THEORY AND 
PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



1. All that relates to the theory of teaching or 
to its practice may be embraced under the four fol- 
lowing heads: 1. School economy; 2. Methods of 
instruction; 3. Methods of culture; 4. The his- 
tory of education. 

Wicker sham's School Economy, p. 5. 

2. UnSer the head of school economy could be 
considered the preparation for, and the organiza- 
tion of, the school, and the conditions of its effi- 
cient workings. Id.^ p. 5. 

3. Under the head of methods of instruction an 
investigation could be made into the nature of 
knowledge and the methods of imparting it. 

ld.,2J 5. 

4. Under the head of methods of culture, the 
physical and mental constitution of man could be 
examined, and an effort could be made to arrive at 
the best means of developing and strengthening it. 

Id., p. 5. 

5. Under the head of history of education, 
there could be related the success or the failure, 
the causes and etfects, of the various educational 



TEACHING. 263 

systems and efFoi'ts which have characterized the 
piist. Id. , p. 5, 

6. Ill making preparation for the school, the 
following particulars must be regarded : 

(1) School sites. (5) School-houses, 

(2) School grounds. (6) School furniture. 

(3) School grades. (7) School apparatus. 

(4) School studies. (8) School records. 

Id., p. 1. 
7. Several things must be taken into considera- 
tion in selecting a site for a school-house. The 
most important of them are : — 

(1) Convenience of access. 

(2) Suitability of the grounds and surround- 
inocs. 

(3) Healthiness of the neigborhood.. 

(4) Beauty of tlie location. Id., p. 2. 

8. (1) Grounds about a school-house should be 
thoroughly drained, so as to ensure dryness in all 
seasons. 

(2) They should be leveled and sodded. 

(3) They should be planted with trees for shade 
and with hardy shrubs for ornament. 

(4) They should be provided with a house for 
fuel and separate closets for the accommodation of 
the pupils of both sexes. 

(5) The grounds should be well supplied with 
water. 

(6) They should be enclosed by a neat fence. 

Sypher's Art of Teaching School, p. ^9, 
9. Some of the most prominent objects the friends 
of education have had in view, in advocating a 
system of graded schools, are the following: they 



264 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

economize the labor of instruction; lessen its cost; 
make teaching more effective; proaiote good order 
in school ; prompt the ambition of pupils ; provide 
instruction in the higher branches of learning; and 
remove the necessity of children's leaving home to 
obtain a good education. 

Wickersham^s School Economy ^ p. ^4- 

10. Children in primary schools ought to be 
taught the names of the sounds of letters of the 
alphabet; and they ought also to receive careful 
instruction in pronouncing, spelling, defining, ele- 
mentary reading, oral composition, drawing and 
writing, and elementary arithmetic. 

Id., pp. ^8, 29. 

11. A list of grammar school studies must era- 
brace spelling, defining, reading, composition, ele- 
ments of grammar, geography, history of the 
United States, drawing and writing, arithmetic, 
oral and written, vocal music. Id., pp. 29, SO. 

12. The principal studies embraced in a high 
school course are included in the followino: classiti- 
cation : Language, inductive sciences, deductive 
sciences, and history. Id., p. SO. 

13. The size of a school-house should mainly 
depend upon the number of pupils it is intended 
to accommodate. A house designed for an un- 
graded school, to be taught by a single teacher, 
should not contain less than nine hundred square 
feet. A house built to accommodate fifty to eighty 
pupils, and provide them with a recitation room, 
should contain not less than fifteen hundred square 
feet; and one to accommodate from eighty to one 
hundred and twenty pupils, with two recitation 



TEACHING. 265 

rooms, should have an area of something like two 
thousand square feet. Id., ]f)p. 33^ 34^. 

14. The best form for school-houses in rural dis- 
tricts is rectangular, the door entering at the south 
end, and the north end being without windows. 
Tjje ceiling must be from twelve to sixteen feet 
high, as it will add to the beauty of the room and 
to the health and comfort of its occupants. 

Id., p. 34^. 

15. The common mode in which our school- 
houses are heated is very objectionable. If a stove 
must be placed in the room, it should be surrounded 
with a tin casing made to extend from the Hoor to 
about one foot above the top of the stove. There 
should be a door in the casing for putting in fuel; 
and a trunk for the conveyance of fresh air should 
start outside of the building, run under the floor, 
and communicate directly with the stove. 

Id., pp. 4-0, 4^. 

16. All the windows of a school-room should be 
hung with pulleys, in order that they may be easily 
raised or lowered. If windows and doors are skill- 
fully used, a tolerably good degree of ventilation 
can be secured. Id., p. 41' 

17.(1) The furniture of a school-house should be 
of the most approved and convenient pattern. 

(2) The desks should be so arranged as to 
enable all pupils to pass to and from their seats 
without creating confusion in any part of the room. 

(3) Every school should be provided with a 
library of reference-books. The most comprehen- 
sive English dictionary, a geographical gazetteer, 
a biographical dictionary, a popular encyclopedia, 



266 THE NOKMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sets of historical and physiological charts and out- 
line maps should be considered indispensable arti- 
cles in the furnishing of every school-house. 

(4) The teacher's desk should be so constructed 
as to be well adapted to the uses for which it is in- 
tended. A plain business office desk, with drap- 
ers, shelves, closets and book-rack, is perhaps the 
most convenient form. 

Sypher^s Art of Teaching School, pp. ^5, ^P. 

18. Among the articles of apparatus which should 
be found in all schools are the following: A set of 
cards for teaching the alphabet, pronunciation, 
spelling, and elementary reading, with a stand to 
hang them upon ; several sets of letter blocks, and 
a chart of elementary sounds; writing-charts; cards 
for drawing, both large and small, to suit classes 
or individuals, and a set of objects for drawing; a 
numeral frame, and sets of square and cube root 
blocks; a globe, a set of outline maps, and a tellu- 
rian ; charts of history; a case of minerals and 
curiosities, a large collection of objects for object 
lessons, some pictures and engravings intended for 
the same purpose; a thermometer. 

Wicker sham's School Economy, pp. J^G, ^7, 

19. To aid the teacher in his work; to give in- 
formation to parents and school officers; to furnish 
educational statistics; to exert a beneficial influence 
upon the pupils. Id., pp. 57, 58, 59. 

20. School organization is a system of arrange- 
ment designed to secure constant emplojmient, 
efficient instruction and moral control. It aims at 
providing the means of instructing and educating 
the "greatest number in the most efficient manner, 



TEACHING. 267 

and by the most economical expenditure of time 

and money. 

De Graff ^s School- Roora Guide, p. 390. 

21. 1. The young teacher should consider well his 
adaptation to a particular school behf^e engaging 
it. 2. He should know something of its peculiar 
difficulties, then weigh the question of his fitness 
to cope with them. 3. The teacher should make 
known his views and plans of teaching and man- 
agement to school officers while negotiating. 4. 
The contract with school officers should always be 
in writing; it should bind the officers to the sup- 
port of the teacher in all just measures. 5. The 
teacher should visit the district and make acquaint- 
ances of parents before opening of school. 

The Teacher's Hand-Booh, Phelps, pp. 78, 79. 

22. Such visits will convince the people that the 
teacher takes an interest in his w^ork and desires to 
do it well. 2. The teacher will be able to ascer- 
tain how many children from each family will be 
likely to attend school, what their ages and ad- 
vancements are, and what books they have studied. 
3 From the children the teacher can learn who 
w^ere in the several classes, how many classes there 
were in the school, how the school was organized, 
and many other matters of detail that will assist 
him in making up a complete schedule of classes 
and studies, ready for use on the opening day. 

Art of Teaching School, Sypher, pp. 7Jf, 75. 

23. The chief business of the teacher on the first 
day is to win the respect of the pupils, and to es- 
tablish confidence between them and himself. 

Id., p. 76. 



268 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

24. (1) Furnish something interesting for every 
pupil to do, from the commencement, all day long. 

(2) Forestall disorder by establishing order at 
every movement. 

(3) You will more readily interest the younger 
classes by engaging with the older classes first, than 
by pursuing the opposite course. 

HolbrooWs School Management, p. 167. 

25. (1) School officers should be present and in- 
troduce teacher the first day ; this gives appearance 
of moral support to teacher, and produces salutary 
effect upon pupils. 

(2) Teacher should make brief, familiar, and 
appropriate address to pupils; should explain his 
relations to them, and theirs to him. 

(3) He should strive to make the first impres- 
sions pleasant. 

(4) Special preparation for first day indispen- 
sable; go to work with a carefully prepared plan. 
Leave nothing to the impulse of the moment. 

(5) Open school with some appropriate and 
pleasing general exercise. This may be a familiar 
song; some vocal exercise, or a responsive reading 
of the Scriptures. 

The Teacher's Hand-Booh, Phelps, p. 79. 

26. There should not be more than four grades in 
the public schools. The primer and first reader 
should constitute the D grade; the second-reader, 
the C grade; the third reader, the B grade; and the 
fourth reader, the A grade. The number of classes 
in each grade should not exceed four, and, by close 
classification, they need not exceed this number. 

DeGraff's School-Room Guide, p. 393. 



TEACHING. 269 

27. Advantages of a programme: 

(1) It lessens the labor of teaching. 

(2) It makes teaching more effective. 

(3) It promotes good order. 

(4) It cultivates systematic habits. 

(5) It promotes the ambition of pupils. 

Id., p. 393. 

28. The employments of the school may readily 
be arranged into three classes, as follows: 

I. Study. 
II. Kecitation. 
III. Exercise. 

Wickersham's School Economy, p. 119. 

29. Knowledge, discipline, aspiration and effi- 
ciency. Id., p. 130. 

30. (1) Incentives to study ought to be continu- 
ous in their influences. 

(2) Incentives to study ought to arise from 
the nature of the subject, and the circumstances 
connected with learning it. Id., p. 126. 

31. The principal incentives to study, about the 
use of which a difference of opinion exists, are — 
prizes, merit-marks, emulation, fear of punishment, 
shame, and ridicule. Id., p. 127. 

32. (1) The approbation of the teacher. 

(2) The approbation of the parents and friends 
of the pupil. 

(3) The approbation of society. 

(4) The attainment of an honorable position 
in the school. 

(5) The pleasure of overcoming difficulties. 

(6) The gratification of curiosity. 

(7) The desire of knowledge. 



270 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(8) The hope of success in life. 

(9) The enjoyment of pure ideal creations. 

(10) The duty of self-perfection. 

(11) The satisfaction of doing right. 

(12) The prospect of heavenly reward. 

Id., p. U9. 

33. (1) The development of the faculties. 

(2) The acquisition of knowledge. 

(3) Its wise application to the uses of life. 

Phelps^s Teacher's Hand-Book, p. 85. 

34. The ends of the recitation may be summarily 
stated to be : 

(a) To develop the power of quick and accu- 
rate perception, of close observation, and generally, 
of clear and exact thought. 

(b) Another object of the recitation is to cul- 
tivate the power of concise and ready expression. 

(c) A third object of the recitation is to deter- 
mine the extent and accuracy of the learner's at- 
tainments. 

(d) Another object of the recitation is to increase 
the attainments of the class, to add to the knowl- 
edge that its members have acquired in their study 
hours. 

(e) An object of the recitation is to determine 
the pupils' habits and methods of study, and to cor- 
rect whatever is faulty either in manner or matter. 

(f ) The moral objects of the recitation are to 
cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, forbear- 
ance, and courtesy. Id., pp. 85, 86, 87. 

35. How to conduct a recitation : 

(1) A brief reproduction of the preceding 
lesson. 



TEACHING. 271 

(2) A brief review of the preceding lesson. 

(3) Rehearsal and critical examination of the 
daily lesson. 

(4) Recapitulation of the daily lesson. 

(5) Adequate preparation for the advanced 
lesson. De Graff's School- Room Guide, p. 339. 

36. (1) A live, intelligent teacher. 

(2) Recitation seats. 

(3) An abundance of blackboard. 

(4) Apparatus — such as globes, charts, maps, 
numerical frame, measures, etc. 

(5) Reference books. \ 

(6) Call bell. 

(7) Proper ventilation. 

(8) Equal temperature. Id,, p. S^B. 

37. (1) General preparation, always special if 
possible. 

(2) Should have a knowledge of mental and 
moral philosophy. 

(3) Should have an abstract of each day's 
work. 

(4) Should know how to ^^use" books, but 
not abuse them. 7d, p. 34,3. 

38. (1) Exercise is necessary to health. 

(2) Exercise is necessary to strength. 

(3) Exercise is necessary to study. 
Wickersham^s School Economy, pp. 216, 217. 

39. School government is the proper ordering of 
both the organic and individual action in the 
schools, so as to secure in pupils the best possible 
development of the mind and discipline of the 
heart. JewelVa School Government, p. 23. 



272 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

40. School government may be embraced under 
the following heads: 

(1) School ethics. 

(2) School retributions. 

(3) School legislation. 

(4) School administration. 

Wickersham^s School Economy, p. '2S0. 

41. Ethics is the science which treats of human 
rights and duties. Id,, p, 231, 

42. School-ethics relates to the rights and duties 
of persons connected with the school. Id,, p, 231, 

43. (1) The teacher. 

(2) The general school officers. 

(3) The communities that found and support 
schools. 

(4) The pupils. Id., pp. 231, 232. 

44. (1) Common sense, 

(2) Knowledge of the branches. 

(3) Teaching power. 

(4) Governing power. 

(5) Love of the work. 

Holbrookes School Management, p, 1, 

45. The school duties of pupils may be compre- 
hended under the following classification : 

(1) Duties to themselves. 

(2) Duties to one another. 

(3) Duties to the school property. 

(4) Duties to the teacher. 

(5) Duties to the general school officers. 

(6) Duties to the school as a whole. 

(7) Duties to visitors at the school, 

(8) Duties to society. 



TEACHINa. 273 

(9) Duties to God. 

Wickersham^s School Economy , p. ^S2. 

46. The term "discipline" is often taken in a 
broad sense, including all the appliances, studies 
and exercises of the student's life. In its more 
contracted sense, it is applied to the correction of 
particular errors and faults. 

Holbrookes School Management, p. 19^. 

47. School government is practically of three 
general species: 

1st. That oi force; 

2d. Thdit oi authority ; and 

3d. That of love. 

JeweWs School Government, p. 283, 
. 48. (1) Privation of recitations. 

(2) Privation of recess. 

(3) Private reproof. 

(4) Reproof before a class, or before a school. 

(5) Privation of position in a class. 

(6) Daily and weekly reports. 

(7) E'otes to parents. 

(8) Suspension. 

(9) Expulsion. 

(10) Corporal punishment. 

(11) Withholding friendship. 

(12) Special penalties. 

Holbrookes School Management, pp. 211, 212, 213, 2U, 
215, 216. 
49. (1) Threatening individual or general punish- 
ment. 

(2) Scolding at individuals or the school. 

(3) Asking for excuses either written or oral. 
18 



274 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(4) Whipping as it is generally practiced, i. e., 
as the common punishment for every kind of offense. 

(5) Compulsory study, inflicted as a punish- 
ment. 

(6) Any form of physical torture or mental 
distress beyond the absolute demand of the case, 
any sudden or violent action, as throwing rulers or 
slapping the head, are not only highly improper 
but dangerously criminal. 

(7) Any punishment whatever beyond the 
school-yard, or, indeed, any punishment in the 
school-room, for acts committed beyond the school- 
yard, I consider entirely improper and badly im- 
. politic. Id., pp. 218, 219, 

50. (1) Guard against prejudice on entering a 
school. 

(2) Do not allow pupils to direct their own 
studies. 

. (3) Do not attempt to teach too many things. 

(4) Never attend to extraneous business in 
school hours. 

(5) Avoid making excuses to visitors for the 
defects of your school. 

(6) JS'ever compare one child with another. 

(7) Avoid wounding the sensibilities of a dull 
child. 

(8) Never lose your patience when parents 
unreasonably interfere with your plans. 

(9) Never make the study of the Bible a pun- 
ishment. 

(10) Ride no "hobbies'* in teaching. 
Pagers Theory and Practice of Teaching, pp. 292, 294, 
296, 297, 300, 301, 302. 



TEACHING. 275 

51. (1) Convince your scholars by your conduct 
that you are their friend. 

(2) Take special care that the school-house 
and its appendages are kept in good order. 

(3) Teach both by precept and by practice, 
the use of the decimal or American currency. 

(4) When scholara do wrong, it is sometimes 
best to withhold immediate reproof, but to describe 
a similar case in general instruction. 

(5) Be accurate. 

(6) Cultivate a cheerful countenance. 

(7) Study to acquire the art of aptly illustra- 
ting a difficult subject. 

(8) Take advantage of unusual occurrences to 
make a moral or religious impression. 

Id,, pp, 307, 309, 311, 312, 3U, 315, 318, 332. 

52. I call that education which embraces the cul- 
ture of the whole man, with all his faculties — sub- 
jecting his senses, his understanding, and his pas- 
sions to reason, to conscience, and to the evangel- 
ical laws of the Christian revelation. 

De Fallenberg. 

53. To teach is to communicate knowledge — to 
give instruction. Rev. William Bates. 

54. To learn is to acquire knowledge — to be in- 
structed. Id. 

55. The faculties of the mind are comprised in 
three general divisions — the intellect, the sensibil- 
ity and the will. 

Sypher^s Art of Teaching School, p. l^. 

56. The first in order is the development of the 
intellect. Id,, p. 15. 



276 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK, 

57. The intellect is developed by the acquisition 
of knowledge. /d, p, 15. 

58. The sources of knowledge are, the senses and 
the reason. M.^ p, 18, 

59. The knowledge w^hich man derives through 
the senses is called empirical knowledge — the 
knowledge of experience. Id.^ p. 18, 

60. This includes all that we know through the 
senses — seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smell- 
ing — and through emotional experiences. 

Id,, p. 18. 

61. Knowledge of which reason is the source is 
called rational knowledge. Id., p. 18. 

62. Ideas of space, of time, of distance, the truths 
evolved by the mathematical calculations, ideas of 
the absolute and the infinite, are attained through 
the processes of reasoning, and can not be reached 
by experience. JJ., p. 18. 

63. A system of education should have for its 
object the guidance of the faculties of the mind in 
their eftbrts to reap in the harvest-fields of nature, 
so that they may first gather that which is first re- 
quired, that they may store away that which is of 
most use, to the end that the mind may be strength- 
ened by labor, that the act of receiving may in- 
crease the capacity to receive, and that what re- 
quires greater strength and longer continued eftbrts 
to overcome and possess, may be left to be gath- 
ered at that period of life, when the requisite 
strength and power of endurance shall have been 
gained through a judicious system of exercise. 

Id., p. 22. 

64. Teaching presupposes three conditions: First, 



TEACHING. 277 

a degree of knowledge and capacity on the part of 
the pupil; second, a degree of knowledge and skill 
on the part of the teacher; and third, knowledge 
to be acquired. Id., p. 23, 

65. (a) Education makes men more industrious; 
(b) more trustworthy ; (c) more active and system- 
atic ; (d) mor^ cheerful ; (e) more far-sighted ; (f ) 
more economical, as producers and preservers of 
property. The School and the School Master, p. 152. 

%Q, (a) It tends to make a people more orderly, 
and to substitute reflection for passion ; (b) to pre- 
dispose them to respect lawful authority; (c) to in- 
dispose them to submit to oppression ; (d) to ren- 
der political revolutions gradual and bloodless; (e) 
to qualify men for the exercise of more and more 
political power ; (f ) to make refinement and civil- 
ization universal. Id., pp. 152, 153. 

67. (a) Want of interest on the part of parents 
and others; (b) frequent change of teachers; (c) 
excessive multiplication of school districts; (d) di- 
versity of class-books; (e) teachers not qualified;* 
(f) defective supervision. Id., p. 197, 

68. The object-matter which must form the 
foundation for a system of teaching, will compre- 
hend : 

(1) The nature of the thing to be operated 
upon, or educational capabilities. 

(2) The nature of the instrumentalities which 
may be used in operating upon it, or educational 
means. 

(3) The manner of performing the operation, 
or educational methods. 

Wickersham^s Methods of Instruction, p. 34" 



278 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

69. The classification of the special elements of 
pedagogics is very simple : 

(1) The physical. 

(2) The intellectual. 

(3) The practical. 

Bosenkranz^s Pedagogics as a System, p, 27. 

70. We sometimes apply to these words Orthobi- 
otics, Didactics, and Pragmatics. /d, ^. 27, 

71. Physical education, as it concerns the repair- 
ing, the motor, or the nervous activities, is divided 
into (1) Dietetics; (2) Gymnastics; (3) Sexual ed- 
ucation. Id.,'p.29, 

72. Dietetics is the art of sustaining the normal 
repair of the organism. Id,, p, 29, 

73. Gymnastics is the art of systematic training 
of the muscular system. Id,, p. SI, 

74. The special direction which the activity of 
apprehending intelligence takes are: 

(1) Perception. 

(2) Conception. 

(3) Thinking. Id , p. 37, 

75. The perceptive faculty is most active in the 
infant. ld„ p. 37, 

76. The conceptive faculty is most active in the 
child. Id.,p, 37. 

77. The thinking faculty is most active in the 
youth. Id,, p. 38. 

78. Thus we may distinguish an intuitive, an 
imaginative, and a logical epoch. Id., p, 38, 

79. In the act of learning there appears (1) a 
mechanical element, (2) a dynamic element, and 
(3) one in which the dynamic again mechanically 
strengthens itself. Id,, p. 57, 



TEACHING. 279 

80. Ascham, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton, Comen- 
ius, Locke, Rosseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Jacotot 
and Herbert Spencer. 

Essays on Educational Reformers^ Quick, pp, 11, 12, 
13, U, 16, 16, 17, 18, 19. 

I 



280 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Define geography. 

2. How is geography divided ? 

3. Define mathematical geography. 

4. What is the form of the earth ? 

5. Give proofs of its rotundity.* 

6. What is the diameter of a sphere? 

7. What is the circumference of a sphere ? 

8. Give the equatorial diameter of the earth. 

9. Give its polar diameter. 

10. Give its circumference. 

11. What is its extent of surface? 

12. What its solid contents in miles? 

13. What is its weight? 

14. What is its specific gravity ? 

15. What is the horizon ? 

16. What points ot the horizon are called cardi- 
nal points? 

17. What are the semi-cardinal points? 

18. What position does the earth occupy in the 
universe ? 

19. How many and what bodies compose the 
solar system ? 

20. What relative position does the earth occupy 
in the solar system ? 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 281 



21. What is the distance of the earth from the 
sun? 

22. Has the sun any other motion than its move- 
ment through space? 

23. To what theory has this uniformity of direc- 
tion of the movements of the planets and sun given 
rise? 

24. What is the axis of the earth ? 

25. What are the poles? 

26. Which is the north pole ? 

27. What is the motion of the earth on its axis 
called? 

28. Give proofs of the earth's rotation. 

29. Explain how falling bodies prove it. 

30. Having established that the earth rotates, 
what considerations indicate that it rotates from 
west to east ? 

31. What is the exact time of a rotation ? 

32. What is the velocity of rotation ? 

33. Where is the velocity least ? 

34. To what phenomenon does the rotation of 
the earth give rise ? 

35. What is the great circle called which sepa- 
rates the dark side of the earth from the light? 

36. What is the earth's motion around the sun 
called? 

37. What is the exact time of a complete revo- 
lution? 

38. Define a siderial year. 

39. Define a tropical year. 

40. Which value is taken for the length of the 
civil year? 

41. What is the extent of the earth's orbit ? 



282 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

42. At what season is the earth nearest the sun ? 

43. Explain why it. is nearer at one time than at 
another. 

44. When is the earth at its perihelion ? 

45. When at its aphelion ? 

46. At what velocity does the earth move in its 
orbit? 

47. What governs the velocity of the different 
planets ? 

48. What causes the continued revolution of the 
earth and other planets ? 

49. How are centrifugal and centripetal forces now 
regarded ? 

50. What gives the earth's orbit its elliptical 
shape ? 

51. What produces the change of seasons? 

52. Define circle as used in geography, 

53 How may circles of the earth be divided 

54. Define great and small circles. 

55. Define circles of position, or measurement. 

56. Define climatic circles. 

57. ISTame the circles of position. 

58. Name the climatic circles. 

59. What is the number of degrees in a circle? 

60. Define latitude. 

61. What is the length of a degree of latitude ? 

62. Are degrees of latitude of equal length on all 
parts of the globe ? 

63. On what is latitude measured? 

64. What is the basis of the geographic mile? 

65. Define longitude. 

QQ. Are degrees of longitude all of equal length? 

67. On what is lono:itude measured? 
» 1 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 283 

68. What is the greatest extent of longitude? 

69. What places have no longitude? 

70. What is the greatest extent of latitude ? 

71. What places have no latitude? 

72. What are prime meridians? 

73. Where are these usually located? 

74. What computations of longitude and time 
may be made, having difference of longitude or 
time between places given ? 

75. Explain why. 

76. Give a diagram showing the time at the same 
moment at different places, marked at quadrant's 
distances, 

77. Define quadrant. 

78. What are the tropics? 

79. Where are they located? 

80. What are the polar circles ? 

81. Where are they located? 

82. Why are these circles thus located? 

83. Into what zones do the climatic circles divide 
the earth ? 

84. Locate the torrid zone. 

85. Locate the temperates. 

86. Locate the frigids. 

87. What is the width of the torrid zone? 

88. What is the width of the temperates? 

89. What is the width of the frigids? 

90. What is the ecliptic? 

91. What is the degree of inclination of the 
earth's axes to the plane of the ecliptic? 

92. Under what circumstances woald there have 
been no change of seasons? 



284 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

93. In what case would the change of seasons 
have been greater than it now is? 

94. What are the equinoxes? 

95. How many and what are they called? 

96. On what days of the year do they occur? 

97. What are the equinoctial points? 

98. What are solstices ? 

99. How many, and what are they called? 

100. On what days of the year do they occur? 

101. What are the solstitial points? 

102. Why is the ecliptic so called ? 

103. On what does the relative length of the day 
and night depend ? 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 285 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON MATHEMATICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Geography is the science that treats of the 
earth. In its widest sense, it embraces all that we 
know of the globe — its form, magnitude and mo- 
tions; the successive changes it has undergone, its 
present condition, its structure, products and in- 
habitants. 

CornelVs Physical Geography^ jp. 1. 

2. Geography is divided into three branches — 
mathematical, political and physical. J<i., f, 1, 

3. Mathematical geography is a term given to 
certain facts of astronomy and mathematics which 
are used in geography. The astronomical part 
treats of the earth as a planet of the solar system, 
with its size, motions, etc. The mathematical part 
teaches us how to represent the earth's surface on 
maps and globes. 

Swinton's Com,j)lete Course in Geog.^ p. 1. 

4. The shape of the earth is that of a sphere, 
or globe, slightly flattened at the poles; in exact 
language, an oblate spheroid. Id.^ f, 2. 

5. I. The continual circumnavigation of the 
earth. This shows that the earth is round from 
east to west, at least. Id,, p.^. 



286 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

TI. Appearance of approaching objects. If the 
earth were flat, as soon as an object appeared on 
the horizon, we would see the upper and lower 
parts at the same time ; but if it were curved, the 
top parts would first be seen. E'ow, when a ship 
is coming into port, we see first the topmasts, then 
the sails, and finally the hull ; hence the earth 
must be curved ; and, since the appearance is the 
same, no matter from what direction the ship is 
approaching, we infer that the earth is evenly 
curved, or spherical. 

III. The circular shape of the horizon. The 
horizon, or the line that limits our view when noth- 
ing intervenes, is always a circle. 

IV. The shape of the earth's shadow. The 
shadow which the earth casts on the moon during 
an eclipse of the moon, is always circular, and as 
only spherical bodies in all positions can cast such 
shadows, we infer that the earth is spherical. 

V. Measurement. The shape of the earth has 
been accurately ascertained by calculations based 
on the measurement of an arc of a meridian. We 
therefore not only know that it is spheroidal, but 
also the exact amount of its oblateness. 

YI. Great circle of illumination. The shape of 
the great circle of illumination, or the line separ- 
ating the portion of the surface lighted by the sun's 
rays from that in the shadow, is another evidence 
of the rotundity of our earth. 

Houston's Physical Geography^ jp. 11, 
6. A diameter of a sphere is any straight line 
drawn through the center from surface to surface. 
Harper's School Geography, p. 2, 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY, 287 

7. The circumference of a sphere is the greatest 
distance around it. Id.^ p. 2. 

8. 7,925.65 miles. Guyofs Physical Geog.,p. 6. 

9. 7,899.17 miles. Id,, p. 6. 

10. 24,899 miles. Id., p. 6. 

11. 196,900,278 square miles. Id., p. 6. 

12. 260,000,000,000 cubic miles. Id., p, 6. 

13. 5,852,000,000,000,000 of tons, a weight of 
which our minds can form no conception. 

Id., p. 6. 

14. The specific gravity of the globe is found to 
be about 5|; that is, it would require' 5| globes of 
water of the same size, to balance the weight of the 
earth. Id., p. 6. 

15. The horizon is that circle upon which the 
earth and sky appear to meet. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 2, 

16. !N'orth, South, East and West, are called car- 
dinal points. ic?., p. 2, 

17. I^orth- east, north-west, south-east and south- 
west, are called semi-cardinal points. 

Eclectic Series, No. 3, p. 6. 

18. The earth is one of a group of small non- 
luminous bodies which revolve around the sun, ac- 
company him through space, and reflect his light. 

Guy of s Physical Geog., p. 2. 

19. The solar system comprises the sun, eight 
large bodies called planets, and as far as is now 
known about one hundred and seventy-five smaller 
bodies called planetoids, or asteroids, besides nu- 
merous comets and meteors. Some of the planets 
have bodies called moons or satellites moving 



288 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

around them. These also belong to the solar sys- 
tem. Houston^ s Physical Geog., p. 8, 

20. The earth belongs to the group nearest the 
sun and is third from the sun in position. 

Guyofs Physical Geog.^ p. 3. 

21. :N'early 92,000,000 of miles. 

22. The sun, all the primary planets, and their 
satellites so far as known, rotate from west to east. 

23. To a theory by Laplace called the nebular 
hypothesis, which assumes that originally all the 
material of which the solar system is composed, 
was scattered throughout space in the form of very 
tenuous matter called nebula. It being granted 
that this matter began to accumulate around a cen- 
ter, and that a motion of rotation was acquired, it 
can be shown on strict mechanical principles, that 
a system resembling our own might be evolved. 

Houston's Physical Geog., p. 15, 

24. The central line of rotary motion is called 
the axis of rotation. Guyofs Physical Geog., p. 3. 

25. The extremities of the axis are called the 
poles. Id., p, 3. 

26. The north pole is the pole nearest the north 
star. Swinio7i''s Complete Course in Geog., p. 3, 

27. It is called its rotation. 

Houston's Physical Ge^g.,p. H, 

28. I. A direct proof of the earth's rotation is 
derived from observations of a pendulum. If a 
heavy ball be suspended by a flexible wire from a 
fixed point, and the pendulum thus formed be made 
to vibrate, its vibrations will all be performed in 
the same plane. If instead of being suspended 
from a fixed point, we give to the point of support 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 289 

a slow motion of rotation around a vertical axis, 
the plane of vibration will still remain unchanged. 
Suppose then a heavy ball to be suspended by a 
wire from a fixed point directly over the pole of 
the earth and made to vibrate; these vibrations 
will continue to be made in the same invariable 
plane. But the earth meanwhile turns round at 
the rate of 15° per hour; and since the observer is 
unconscious of his own motion of rotation, it re- 
sults that the plane of vibration of the pendulum 
appears to revolve at the same rate in the opposite 
direction. 

II. A second proof of the earth's rotation is de- 
rived from the motion of falling bodies. 

Loomis's Treatise on Astronomy^ pp. 32-34-. 

29. If the earth had no rotation upon an axis, a 
heavy body let fall from any elevation would de- 
scend in the direction of a vertical line. But if the 
earth rotates on an axis, then since the top of a 
tower describes a larger circle than the base, its 
easterly motion must be more rapid than the base, 
and if a ball be dropped from the top of a tower, 
since it already has the easterly motion which be- 
longs to the top of the tower, it will retain this 
easterly motion during its descent, and its devia- 
tion to the east of the vertical line will be nearly 
equal to the excess of the motion of the top of the 
tower above that of the base during the fall. 

Id., p. 34,. 

30. The sun and stars appear to move in an op- 
posite direction, from east to west, or as it is com- 
monly expressed ** rise in the east'' and "set in the 

19 



290 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

west." This apparent motion of the sun and stars 
is caused in reality hj. the rotation of the earth. 
Warren's New Phys. Geog. , j). 8. 

31. The time of a complete rotation is 23 hours, 
56 minutes, 4.09 seconds. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. H,. 

32. The velocity of rotation at any point on the 
equator is ahout 1,042 miles per hour. Id.., j). H. 

33. At points distant from the equator, the velo- 
city diminishes, until at the poles it is nothing. 

Id. , p. III., 

34. The alternation of day and night is owing to 
the earth's rotation, which brings each point of its 
surface from darkness to light, and from light to 
darkness. CornelVs Phys. Geog., p. 6. 

35. The great circle which separates the dark 
side of the earth from the light side is called the 
circle of illumination. Id., p. 6. 

36. Its revolution. Houston's Phys. Geog., p. IS. 

37. The exact time of a complete revolution is 
365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds. 

Id., p. 15. 

38. The exact time of a revolution is called a 
sidereal year. Id., p. 15. 

39. The tropical year, or the time from one 
March equinox to the next, is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
minutes, 49.7 seconds. Id., p. 15. 

40. The latter value is the one generally given 
for the length of the year, being nearly 365J days. 

Id., p. 15. 

41. 577,000,000 miles. Id., p. 15. 

42. About January 1st. /c?., p. 15. 

43. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse. The sun 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 291 

is in one of the foci and as this is not in the center 
of the orbit, the earth most be nearer to the sun at 
some parts of its revolution than at others. 

Id., p. 15, 

44. When the earth is in that part of its orbit 
which is nearest to the sun, it is said to be at its 
perihelion. Id., p. 15. 

45. When in thiat part of its orbit farthest from 
the sun, it is at its aphelion. Id.^ p. 15. 

46. Its mean velocity may be taken as equal to 
about* 19 miles a second, which is nearly sixty times 
faster than the speed of a cannon-ball. Id., p. 15. 

47. While the circumference of the orbits of the 
planets increase with their distance from the sun, 
their velocity at the same time diminishes, and the 
time of revolution, or length of year, increases cor- 
respondingly. Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 5. 

48. The earth's movement through space is 
caused solely by a projectile force imparted to it 
when it first began its separate existence — probably 
when first separated from the nebulous sun. From 
its inertia it would move for an indefinite time in 
one direction, but, by the sun's attraction it is con- 
stantly changing its direction by falling toward the 
sun; and thus is produced the curved shape of its 
orbit. Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 10, 

49. Centrifugal and centripetal forces, as such, 
have no real existence, save in the projectile force 
and in the attraction of the sun. It is inertia alone 
that keeps the earth moving and the sun's attrac- 
tion that modifies the motion. The earth has no 
power whatever, in itself, to move either towards 
or from the sun. An entire abandonment of the 



292 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

idea of center -seeking or center-flying forces^ will 
greatly simplify the explanation of the earth's mo- 
tion of revolution. Id.^ p. 10, 

50. It is owing to the attractive influence of the 
neighboring planets, which modify the effect of the 
sun's attraction. Id.^ p. 15. 

51. The change of seasons is produced by the 
revolution of the earth, together with the inclina- 
tion and constant parallelism of the axis. 

Id., J). 16, 

52. The term circle, in geographical science, is 
used in a restricted sense. The geogrcqMcal circles 
are not planes cutting the terrestrial globe, but 
simply lines encircling it. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., pp, 6, 7, 

53. Into great circles and small circles, and into 
circles of position and climatic circles. 

Id , pp, 6, 7, 

54. Those which bisect the surface of the sphere 
are called great circles. All others are small cir- 
cles. Id.., p. 7, 

55. Circles of position include the equator, a 
great circle encompassing the globe from east to 
west, midway between the poles ; meridians, great 
circles encompassing the globe from north to south, 
intersecting at the poles, and crossing the equator 
at right angles; and parallels, small circles parallel 
to the equator. They are used in determining the 
geographical position of places. Id,, p. 7, 

56. They are four parallels which serve not only 
to determine position, but also to mark certain im- 
portant climatic boundaries, hence they may be 
distinguished as climatic parallels. Id,., p, 7, 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 293 

57. They are the equator, the meridians, and the 
parallels. Id., p. 7. 

68. The tropics, the polar circles and the ecliptic. 

Id., p. 7. 

59. Every circle, whether great or small, is di- 
vided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. 

Eclectic Series School Geog., No. 3, p. 7. 

60. The latitude of a place, is the distance of its 
parallel from the equator. Id., p. 7, 

61. 69i miles, or 3^^ part of the circumference 
of the earth. Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 7. 

62. Near the poles the degrees are slightly longer, 
owing to the oblateness of the sphere. Id.j p. 7, 

63. Upon the meridians. Id., p. 7, 

64. One minute of longitude at the equator con- 
stitutes the geographical or nautical mile used in 
reckoning distances at sea. Id., p. 7, 

65. The longitude of a place, is the distance of 
its meridian from the prime meridian. 

Eclectic Series School Geog., No 3, p. 7. 
QQ. The length of the degrees of longitude de- 
creases as we recede from the equator, the parallels 
becoming smaller the nearer we approach the 
poles. Id., p. 7. 

67. Upon the parallels and the equator. 

Id., p. 7. 

68. There are 180'' of west longitude and 180° of 
east longitude. Id., p. 7. 

69. At the poles where all the meridians meet, 
longitude ceases. Id., p. 7. 

70. There are 90° of north latitude, and 90° of 
south latitude. Id., p. 7. 



294 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



71. Places on the equator have no latitude. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 3. 

72. The meridian from which longitude is reck- 
oned is called the prime meridian. 

Houston's Phys. Geog.^ p, 13. 

73. For each nation it is generally the meridian 
of its own capital. Id., p. 12, 

. 74. If the difference in time marked at two places 
be known, their difference in longitude can at once 
be ascertained, and vice versa. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog.^ p. 7. 

75. Since any given point on the earth's surface 
passes through 360° of longitude — one entire rota- 
tion — in 24 hours, it must pass through -\^^°, or 15°, 
in one hour; and 1° in ^^3- of an hour, or four min- 
utes. Id., p. 7, 

76. 



180" 



West, 
90° 



0° 



90» 



180" 



12 A. M. 


6 A. M. 


Noon 


6P 


M. 


12 P. M. 


Monday, or raid- 


Monday. 


of Monday. 


Monday. 


Midnight of 


night of Sunday. 










Monday. 



Guyofs Physical Geog., p. 7. 

77. A quadrant is one quarter of a circle, or 90°. 

Mattison^s High School Astronomy, p, 22. 

78. The tropics are parallels which mark the 
highest latitude which receives the vertical rays of 
the sun. ^ Guy of s Phys, Geog., p. 7. 

79. They are located 23J° from the equator. 

80. They are parallels which mark the limits of 
illumination when the sun is vertical at the tropics. 

Id., p. 7. 

81. They are located 23J° from the poles. 

Id., p. 7. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 295 

82. Their position is fixed by the inclination of 
the earth's axis 23J° towards the plane of its orbit. 

Id., p. 7, 

83. The zones enclosed by these circles are: one 
torrid zone, two temperate zones, and two frigid 
zones. Swinton's Complete Course in Geog., p. 7. 

84. The torrid zone is between the Tropic of 
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Id., p. 7. 

85. The temperates lie between the tropics and 
the polar circles. Id., p. 7. 

86. The frigids lie between the polar circles and 
the poles. Id., p. 7. 

87. The Torrid Zone is 47°, (= about 3,250 miles) 
in breadth. Id.,j). 7. 

88. Each Temperate Zone is 43° (=: nearly 3,000 
miles) in breadth. Id.,p 7. 

89. Each Frigid Zone is 23J° (=1,625 miles) in 
width. Id., p. 7. 

90. The ecliptic is a great circle whose plane co- 
incides with that of the earth's orbit. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 7, 

91. 23i° toward the plane of the ecliptic. 

Id, p. 7. 

92. If the earth's axis had been perpendicular to 
the plane of its orbit, the equator would have coin- 
cided with the ecliptic; day and night would have 
been of equal duration throughout the year, and 
there would have been no diversity of seasons. 

Loomis^s Treatise on Astron., p. 63. 

93. If the inclination of the equator to the eclip- 
tic had been greater than it is, the sun would have 
receded farther from the equator on the north side 



296 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

in summer, and on the south side in winter, and 
the heat of summer as well as the cold of winter 
would have been more intense ; that is, the diver- 
sity of the seasons would have been greater than 
at present. Id., p. 68, 

94. They are the times of the year at which the 
sun's vertical rays fall exactly on the equator. 

95. There are two equinoxes, the vernal and au- 
tumnal. Loomis's Treatise on Astron., p. 69. 

96. The vernal equinox takes place on the 20th 
of March, and the autumnal on the 22d of Septem- 
ber. Id., p. 69. 

97. The ecliptic intersects the equator at two 
points diametrically opposite to each other. These 
are called equinoctial points. Id., p. 69. 

98. The solstices are the times at which the ver- 
tical rays of the sun reach their farthest northern 
or southern limit, and fall vertical on one or the 
other of the tropics. Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p. 17. 

99. There are two solstices, -called the summer 
solstice, and the winter solstice. Id., p. 17. 

100. The summer solstice takes place on the 21st 
of June, and the winter solstice on the 21st of De- 
cember. Id.^ p. 17. 

101. They are the points of the ecliptic which are 
midway between the equinoxes. 

Loomis^s Astron., p. 69. 

102. This circle is so called because solar and 
lunar eclipses can only take place when the moon 
is very near its plane. Id., p. 69. 

103. Whenever more than half of either the north- 
ern or southern hemisphere is illumined by the 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 297 

rays of the sun, the length of the day in that hem- 
isphere will exceed that of the night, in proportion 
as the length of the illuminated part, measured 
along any of the parallels, exceeds that of the dark 
part. Houston's Pliys, Geog., p, 18, 



298 THE NOEM4L QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Define political geography. 

2. Under what heads may this division of geog- 
raphy be discussed ? 

3. What political divisions does the continent 
of North America comprise? 

4. Of what races does the population of the 
United Stales consist? 

5. What is the number of the population of the 
United States? 

6. What are the leading forms of industry in 
the different localities ? 

7. What are the leading exports and imports of 
foreign commerce? 

8. With what countries is the commerce of the 
United States? 

9. What are the divisions of British America? 

10. What are the most important provinces of 
British America? 

11. In what does their source of wealth consist? 

12. What are its forms of industry ? 

13. How does its commerce rank ? 

14. Ilow is the Dominion governed? 

15. What is the number of its population and 
what is its state of advancement? 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 299 

16. Locate the Northwest Territory. 

17. What difference exists between the popula- 
tion of Greenland and Iceland? 

18. What is the character of the population of 
Mexico ? 

19. What are their forms of industry? 

20. What their sources of wealth ? 

21. - Of what divisions does Central America con- 
sist? 

22. What gives importance to this country? 
28, To whom do the West Indies belong? 

24. How many and what are the political divis- 
ions of South America? 

25. What is the number of inhabitants of South 
America? To what races do they belong? 

26. What is the state of commerce of South 
America? 

27. Which the most important country in South 
America? 

28. Which is the largest city in the southern 
hemisphere? 

29. What is the state of civilization in South 
America? 

30. What is true of the natural resources of Bra- 
zil? 

31. What are its principal industries? 

32. Which is the most progressive of the Spanish 
American republics? 

38. IS'ame the British isles. 
84. What does the British empire comprise? 
35. What is the form of s^overnment of the Brit- 
ish empire? 



300 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

36. What is the rank of England in the United 
Kingdom? 

37. In what do its resources consist? 

38. What is the conamercial rank of England? 

39. What are the resources of Wales? 

40. What are the employments of the Scotch? 

41. What difference exists between the people 
of the highlands and the lowlands? 

42. For what is Glasgow noted? 

43. Describe Ireland. 

44. What are its political divisions? 

45. What are its important cities and for what is 
each noted? 

46. How many and what are the empires of Eu- 
rope? 

47. How many and what are its republics? 

48. How many and what are its kingdoms? 

49. Which of the latter are absolute monarchies? 

50. What is the total population of Europe? 

51. Of what race does it consist and what branches 
does it include? 

52. What countries occupy the Scandinavian pe- 
ninsula? 

53. What are the exports of Norway? 

54. What are the exports of Sweden ? 

55. What is the most northern town in the world ? 

56. What races dwell in the extreme northern 
part of the Scandinavian Peninsula? 

57. How does the Rusian Empire rank, and what 
does it include? 

58. What is the state of the inhabitants? 

59. What are the five great powers of Europe? 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 301 

60. What large and navigable rivers in Central 
Europe ? 

61. What is the rank of France among States? 

62. What of its education ? 

63. What are the forms of industries of the peo- 
ple? 

64. For what is the capital city of France noted, 
and how does it rank in size? 

65. Of how many states is the German empire 
composed? 

66. Name tho most important. 

67. What is the extent and population of Ger- 
many ? 

68. What are the employments of its people? 

69. What are its exports, and how does it com- 
pare with England in manufactures and commerce? 

70. How does Germany rank with other coun- 
tries in educational matters? 

71. What are the divisions of the Austrian em- 
pire ? 

72. Why is the foreign trade of Austria limited? 

73. Of what races are the people of Austria 
made up ? 

74. Mention some of its important cities. 

75. What lands does Denmark comprise? 

76. What are the employments of the people? 

77. What peculiarity about the state of Holland ? 

78. What river waters Belgium, and how is Bel- 
gium situated? 

79. For what is the country of Switzerland prin- 
cipally noted? 

80. What are its manufactures? 



802 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

81. What is the present condition of the people 
of kSpain ? 

82. What are the pursuits of the people of Por- 
tugal ? 

83. With what other people are they closely al- 
lied? 

84. What are the characteristics of the people 
of Italy? 

85. What is the most important manufacture of 
Italy? 

86. What are the interesting features of Rome? 

87. What gives special interest to the kingdom 
of Greece ? 

88. What are the present employments of its 
people? 

89. Of what race are the Turks? 

90. To which continent does their empire more 
properly belong? 

91. What are the races of Asia, and what is the 
number of each ? 

92. What is its state of civilization? 

93. What is true of the rivers of Asia? 

94. What European powers have possession in 
Asia? 

95. What is the form of government throughout 
Asia? 

96. How does China rank as an empire? 

97. Of what political divisions does it consist? 

98. What is the number of its population ? 

99. What is the character of its civilization ? 

100. Of what does the empire of Japan consist? 

101. How do the Japanese rank in civilization? 

102. What is the situation of Africa? 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 308 

103. Give the outline of Africa. 

104. For what is Africa remarkable? 

105. Describe the mountains of Africa. 

106. Name the rivers of Africa. 

107. Describe the lakes of Africa. 

108. Name the productions of Africa. 

109. Describe the government of Africa. 

110. What is the number of inhabitants and to 
what races do thevbelonsr? 

111. Describe Egypt. 

112. For what is Egypt celebrated? 

113. Name the countries of Africa. 

114. What does Australia comprise ? 

115. Describe the inhabitants of Australia. 

116. Name the countries of Australia and give 
the capital of each. 

117. What is the government of Australia? 

118. What is Oceanica? 



804 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOi:, 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON POLITICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Political geography treats of men as inhab- 
itants of the earth, of the modes of life they lead, 
and of the forms of government under which they 
live. Eclectic Series School Geog., No 3, p. 1. 

2. Races, nations, industries, governments, civ- 
ilization, etc. Siointon's Complete Course, jp. 1. 

3. !N"orth America comprises six divisions : 

(1) The United States occupying the middle 
part of North America, and the north-western part 
called Alaska. 

(2) British America. 

(3) Danish America, comprising the islands of 
Greenland and Iceland. 

(4) The Eepublic of Mexico, lying south of 
the United States. 

(5) The Republics of Central America, lying 
south-east of Mexico, between the Caribbean Sea 
and Pacific Ocean. 

(6) The West Indies, comprising two island 
chains: the Antilles and the Bahamas. 

Eclectic Series, No. 2. 

4. The white race, negroes and mulattoes, the 
descendants of slaves brought from Africa, Indians 
and Chinese. Harper's School Geog., p. 33, 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 305 

5. In 1870, the population was about 39,000,000. 
The white race numbered about 34,000,000 ; ne- 
groes and mulattoes, nearly 5,000,000; - Indians, 
350,000; Chinese, 64,000. Id., p. 33. 

6. Agriculture is the leading industry. Its 
chief seats are the central and Atlantic plains and 
the California basin. Grazhig is an important oc- 
cupation in the agricultural regions. Mining is an 
industry of great and growing importance. The 
principal mines of coal and iron are in the eastern 
highland; those of gold and silver in the moun- 
tains of the western highland; those of lead in 
Nevada, Utah, and the valley of the Upper Missis- 
sippi ; and those of copper on the shores of Lake 
Superior. Manufacturing has its chief seat north of 
the Potomac and Ohio. Fishing is a leading inter- 
est in some of the ]N'ew England States. Com- 
merce, domestic and foreign. Id.^ pp. 33, 34- 

7. Cotton, breadstuff's, provisions, petroleum, 
gold and tobacco are the exports. The imports 
are dry goods, sugar, coffee, hides, tea, iron and 
tin. Id., p. 34. 

8. The foreign commerce of the United States 
is chiefly with England, Germany and France in 
Europe ; with Canada, the West Indies and Brazil 
in America; and with China and Japan in Asia. 

Id., p, 34,, 

9. This extensive country may be divided into 
three parts : The Dominion of Canada, the Prov- 
ince of ^Newfoundland, and the "North-west Ter- 
ritory." Swinton's Complete Course, p. 81. 

10. Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New 
20 



V 



306 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario. These five provinces 
all lie in the basin of the St. Lawrence and the 
great lakes. They form the most populous, pro- 
ductive and important section of the British Amer- 
ican possessions. Id.^jp.Sl. 

11. This region possesses great natural wealth — 

(1) In its extensive forests of pine, maple, 
beech and oak. 

(2) In the fertile soil of the St. Lawrence 
Basin. 

(3) In the fisheries of the St. Lawrence and 
neighboring waters. 

(4) In its mines of iron, coal, copper and lead. 

(5) In its direct water communication with 
the Atlantic. Id., p. 82. 

12. Farming, lumbering, ship-building, the fish- 
eries, mining and commerce. Id., p. 82, 

13. With the exception of the United States and 
England it has a larger commercial marine than 
any other country. Id., p. 82, 

14. The Dominion government is vested in a 
Governor-General appointed by the British sov- 
ereign, and a legislature, called the Parliament. 

Id,, p. 82, 

15. The population is about 4,000,000. In civili- 
zation, the Dominion ranks with the United States. 
The people are educated, prosperous and pro- 
gressive. Id., p. 82. 

16. The ITorth-west Territory includes the vast 
tract of country north of the Dominion of Canada 
and the United States stretching from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific and extending about 1,400 miles 
from north to south. Id., p. 83, 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 307 

17. The people of Iceland are more intelligent. 

Id., p. 83. 

18. The population consists of Mexican Indians, 
who form the majority, of Creoles, or people de- 
scended from Spanish parents; and of Mestizos, or 
mixed races. The Mexicans are a civilized but not 
a progressive race. Id., p. 8^, 

19. Agriculture and silver mining are the prin- 
cipal occupations, but every branch of industry is 
at the lowest ebb. Id., p, 84, 

20. Mexico is rich in silver, gold, quicksilver and 
other metals; and the soil is generally fertile. The 
country is, however, destitute of water highways 
from the interior to the coast. Id., p. 84., 

21. Central America is the seat of five indepen- 
dent republics — Guatemala, Honduras, San Salva- 
dor, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and of the small 
province of British Honduras, or Belize. 

Id., p. 84. 

22. The importance of this country arises : 

(1) From its geographical position on the nar- 
row neck of land between the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. 

(2) From its abundance of valuable natural 
products. Id., p. 84, 

23. Cuba and Porto Rico are colonies of Spain ; 
Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the lesser An- 
tilles belong to Great Britain ; the rest belong to 
France, and other European countries. Hayti was 
once divided between France and Spain ; it now 
consists of two independent negro republics — Hayti 
and San Domingo. Harper's School Geog., p. 73. 

24. There are thirteen political divisions in South 



308 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

America. Nine states, or republics — Venezuela, 
Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argen- 
tina, Uruguay, Paraguay. One empire — Brazil. 
Three colonies — British, Dutch and French Guy- 
ana. Patagonia has no organized government. 
Eclectic Geog., No. S, p. 86. 

25. South America has about 26,000,000 inhabit- 
ants. One third of these belong to the Caucasian 
race, one third are Indians, and the remainder con- 
sists of negroes and persons of mixed blood, as 
mestizoes and mulattoes. Id., p. 85. 

26. South America has had a comparatively lim- 
ited commerce. It is now rapidly increasing, espe- 
cially in Brazil, Chili, and the Argentine Confed- 
eration. Harpefs School Geog., p. 78. 

27. Brazil is the largest and most important 
country of South America. Its area is nearly as 
great as that of the United States or of all Europe. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p. 89. 

28. Rio Janeiro, sometimes called Rio, the most 
important port, is the capital of Brazil and the 
largest city in the southern hemisphere. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 80. 

29. The people are in general uneducated and 
unprogressive. They have few railroads, few tele- 
graphs, steamers, printing presses or manufactures. 
South America has given to the rest of the world 
little except its tropical products, its gold and sil- 
ver, and that most valuable of root plants, the po- 
tato. Swinton's Complete Course, p. 88. 

30. In the richness and variety of its vegetation, 
Brazil surpasses all other countries. Id., p. 88. 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 309 

31. Agriculture and stock-raising, are the chief 
occupations. The staple productions for export 
are coffee, of which it supplies three-fourths of the 
whole quantity used in the world ; and sugar, in 
the production of which it is second only to Cuba. 

Id., p. 89. 

32. Chili is the most enterprising country of 
South America, and has a large proportion of Eu- 
ropean inhabitants. Harper's School Geog.^p.81. 

33. The British Isles consist of Great Britian and 
Ireland, together with numerous small adjacent 
islands. Swinton's Complete Course^ p. 95. 

34. The name British Empire is applied to the 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and its nu- 
merous colonies and possessions in various parts 
of the world. Id., p. 95. 

35. The government is a hereditary limited mon- 
archy. The laws are made by Parliament, which 
is composed of the House of Lords and the House 
of Commons. Id., p. 95. 

36. England is the largest, most populous, and 
most important division of the United Kingdom. 

Id., p. 95. 

37. Its vast deposits of coal, iron, and other min- 
erals, its productive soil, its extent of sea-coast, its 
great number of good harbors and navigable bays 
and river-mouths, and its central situation for the 
commerce of the world, are the principal sources 
of the wealth and power of England. Id., p. 95. 

38. Commerciallv.Enscland ranks as the foremost 
of countries. Id., p. 96. 

39. It is rich in mines of copper, iron and coal. 

Id., p. 96, 



310 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

40. ManufacturiDg, agriculture and the fisheries. 

Id., p. 96, 

41. The Highlanders are the descendants of the 
native race of Britain, and speak a Celtic language 
called Gaelic. The inhabitants of the Lowlands 
belong to the same race as the English, and speak 
the English language. Id.^ jp. 96. 

42. It is celebrated for its iron and cotton man- 
ufactories. Id., p. 96. 

43. Ireland is a beautiful and fertile island, about 
the size of the State of Maine. Id., p. 98. 

44. Politically, it is divided into four provinces, 
Ulster, Leinester, Munster and Con naught, repre- 
senting four ancient kingdoms, and these are sub- 
divided into thirty-two counties. Jc?., p. 98. 

45. Dublin, the metropolis, a beautiful city and a 
seat of culture; Belfast, the center of the linen 
manufacture and trade, and Cork, noted for its 
splendid harbor, and its ship-building and trade. 

Id., p. 98. 

46. Europe contains four empires, Russia, Tur- 
key, Germany, and Austria. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 88. 

47. Two republics, France and Switzerland. 

Id.,p 88. 

48. There are ten independent kingdoms, Nor- 
way, Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, Greece, Denmark, Belgium, and 
Holland. Id., p. 88, 

49. Russia and Turkey are absolute ; Germany, 
Austria and the ten kingdoms are limited mon- 
archies. Id., p. 88. 

50. The total population of Europe is estimated 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 311 

at 300,000,000, three-fourths of it being in West- 
ern Europe. Id.^ p. 88. 

51. It is nearly all Caucasian. The three branches 
of the Caucasian race in Europe are the Celts in 
the west, the Teutons from the Alps to Scotland 
and ISTorthern I^orway, and the Slaves in the Great 
Plain. Id., p. 88, 

52. Sweden occupies the eastern and Norway the 
western part. Swinton's Complete Course, p. 103. 

53. Lumber and fish. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 88. 

54. Grain, iron and copper. Id., p. 88. 

55. Hammerfest is the most northern town in 
the world. Id., p. 88. 

56. The Laplanders and Finns, who belong to 
the Tartar race. Their chief wealth is the rein- 
deer, which supplies them with food, clothing, and 
many useful articles. 

Swintoji's Complete Course, p. 103. 

57. Russia is the most extensive of empires, in- • 
eluding one-half of Europe and one-third of Asia. 
It is about twice the size, and has nearly double 
the population of the United States. Id., p. 102. 

58. The inhabitants are mostly Slavonians. Ger- 
mans predominate in the provinces bordering on 
the Baltic Sea. The higher classes are well edu- 
cated, but the great mass of the people can not 
read or write. 

Eclectic Series School Geog., No. 3, p. 91. 

59. Russia, Germany, Austria, England and 
France, are the largest, most populous and power- 
ful, and are called the Five Great Powers. 

Id., p. 90. 



312 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

60. Four navigable rivers — the Po, the Rhone, 
the Rhine, and the Danube — flow from the heart 
of high Europe and pass through the pLains to four 
seas. Id,, p. 90. 

61. France is one of the oldest, most powerful 
and most highly civilized nations of Europe. 

Swinton's Complete Course, p. 99, 

62. In literature, science and art France has long 
been distinguished ; but until recently the educa- 
tion of the great body of the French people was 
almost entirely neglected. Now, however, an or- 
ganized system of popular instruction is in opera- 
tion under the control of the government. 

Id., p. 99. 

63. Agriculture, manufacturing and commerce. 

Id., p. 99. 

64. It is the most beautiful and attractive of 
cities, and is the world's center of modern art, 
fashion and pleasure, as London is of commerce 
and of business. It is distinguished for its mag- 
nificent public buildings, public gardens, and 
places of amusement, and for its great libraries, 
museums, art galleries, and scientific schools, and 
also for the manufacture and sale of articles of art, 
ornament, and fashion. It is second only to Lon- 
don in wealth and trade. 7c?., p. 99, 

65. Politically the German Empire consists of 
twenty-six States. Id., p. 101. 

^^. The Kingdom of Prussia, which embraces 
two-thirds of the area of Germany and a majority 
of its population, — and the three kingdoms of Ba- 
varia, Saxony, and Wurtemburg. The other twenty- 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 313 

two States are small in extent, and are variously 
called grand duchies, duchies, principalities, etc. 

Id., p. 101, 

67. The area of Germany is nearly the same as 
that of France, being 208,000 square miles. Popu- 
lation is about the same as that of the United States. 

lil.jp. 101. 

68. The leading industries are agriculture, man- 
ufacturing, mining and commerce. Id., p. 101, 

69. Wheat, wines, wool, and manufactures are 
the principal exports. In manufactures Germany 
is behind England and France. Id., p. 101, 

70. In education Germany is the foremost coun- 
try in Europe. It has a fine system of public schools, 
and education is compulsory. Id , p. 101, 

71. Austria proper and the kingdom of Hungary, 
together with the Polish States to the north of the 
Carpathian mountains. Id.., p, 102. 

72. As Austria has but little sea coast, the foreign 
trade is limited. Id., p. 102. 

73. About one half of the population belong to 
the Slavonic race, and one fifth to the Germanic; 
one-sixth are Magyars, and the rest are made up 
of Roumanians, Jews, Gypsies, Greeks, etc. 

Id., p. 102. 

74. Vienna is the finest city of Central Europe. 
Pesth, the chief commercial city of Hungary; 
Prague, in Bohemia, Trieste, etc. Id., p. 102. 

75. Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jut- 
land and of the adjacent islands at the entrance of 
the Baltic, the largest being Zealand and Funen. 

Id., p. 103. 

76. Denmark is mainly an agricultural and graz- 



814 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ing country, but many Danes are engaging in fish- 
ing, or in a seafaring life. Jc/., jp. 103. 

77. Some parts are even lower tlian the ocean at 
high tide, and would be inundated if they were not 
protected by extensive dykes. 

Eclectic Series School GeogrcqMes^ jp. 95, 

78. The western part of Belgium, watered by the 
Scheldt and its tributaries, is a continuation of the 
flats of Holland. Swinton's Complete Course, p. 104-. 

79. Switzerland has the sublimest scenery in 
Europe. Id., p. 105. 

80. The manufacture of small articles, such as 
watcbes, jewelry, silk stuffs, ribbons and toys, is 
the chief occupation. 

Harper* s School Geog. , j^- 95. 

81. In tbe sixteenth century, Spain was the great- 
est nation in Europe; but, owing to bad govern- 
ment, it has sunk to the position of a second-rate 
power, and is neither progressive nor higliiy civil- 
ized. Swinton's Complete Course, p. 105. 

82. The leading pursuit is the culture of the vine, 
from which port wine is made, and of the olive and 
semi-tropical fruits. Id., p. 105. 

83. The Spanish. Id., p. 105. 

84. The Italians are the purest representatives 
of the Latin race, and their language comes di- 
rectly from the Latin. The people are generally 
industrious, frugal and temperate, but excitable 
and passionate. Id., p. 106. 

85. The silk manufactures of Italy are the most 
important of Europe. Id., p. 106. 

86. Every part of Rome contains remains of tern- 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 315 

pies, baths, tombs, arches, and cohimns which ex- 
cite admiration. Id.^ j). 106. 

87. Five hundred years before the birth of Christ 
Greece was the most civilized of nations. Its re- 
publics were famous for their illustrious soldiers, 
artists, philosophers, poets and historians. 

Id., J). 107, 

88. A large part of the people are engaged in 
raising sheep and goats. Id.^p. 107, 

89. The Turks belong to the Mongolian race. 

Id,, ]). 107, 

90. The empire of the Turks is more properly an 
Asiatic power. Id.^ p. 107. 

91. The Mongolians, ^00,000,000; Malay, 20,- 
000,000 ; Caucasian, 180,000,000. Id., p. 110, 

92. The fertile plains of China and tropical Asia 
are the great seats of population. In this region 
civilized nations have existed for thousands of 
years, but this civilization has long been stationary. 

Id., p. 110. 

93. They rank among the longest and largest on 
the globe. Id., p. 110. 

94. The English, the Eussians, and the Dutch 
are the only European nations that possess exten- 
sive dominions in Asia. Siberia and Georgia form 
parts of the Russian Empire; India and the West- 
ern Coast of Farther India belonscto Eno:land; and 
the greater portion of the East Indian Archipelago 
is governed by the Dutch. 

Eclectic Geog., No. ^, p. 75, 

95. The government is an absolute monarchy. 

Harper^ s School Geog., p. 106. 

96. The Chinese Empire is one of five great gov- 



316 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ernments which together cover more than half of 
the land surface of the globe. These are, in the 
order of their area, the British Empire, the Russian 
Empire, the Cliinese Empire, the United States and 
Brazil. Id., p. 105, 

97. The Empire is divided into three parts: 

(1) China proper. 

(2) Mantchooria. 

(3) The Colonies, including Thibet, Mongolia, 
Little Turkestan, and Soongaria. 

Eclectic Litei^mediate Geog.y p. 76. 

98. The total population of the Chinese Empire 
is estimated at 425,000,000. This is the densest 
population in the world. • 

Harper's School Geog., p. 105, 

99. The civilization of China was already flour- 
ishing at a time when the Christian nations had 
no existence. With the exception of the steam 
engine and the electric telegraph, there is scarcely 
any great invention of modern times which has not 
been in use among the Chinese for many centuries. 
Still, they can not be regarded as a progressive 
people, and their conceit prevents their learning 
new ideas. It is but recently that China has been 
opened to the w^orld. Swinton's Geog., p. 112. 

100. The empire of Japan is composed of islands, 
the largest of which are i^iphon, Yesso or Jesso, 
Kiusiu and Sikoke. 

Monteith's Comprehensive Geog. , p. 81. 

101. The Japanese are the most highly civilized 
and the most progressive of the Mongolian race. 
They are now rapidly introducing railroads, tele- 
graphs, and improved machinery of all kinds, and 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 317 

have established public and scientific schools under 
the instruction of European and American teach- 
ers. Swintoiis Geog., p. 113. 

102. Africa extends between the parallels of 37° 
north and 35° south latitude. It is surrounded on 
all sides by the ocean, except where it is united to 
Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. Id., p. 119. 

103. It has few projections of land or inbreak- 
ings of the sea, and is the most regular of all the 
grand divisions. Its figure resembles that of an 
irregular triangle. Id., p. 119. 

104. Africa is remarkable for its high surface, 
extensive deserts, and hot climate. 

Monteith's Comprehensive Geog. , p. 83. 

105. The mountains of Africa are: 

(1) The Atlas range, in the north-west. 

(2) The mountains of Abyssinia. 

(3) The mountains of the Great Lake Region, 
around the sources of the IN'ile, in which is Kili- 
manjaro (20,000 feet high), the loftiest peak of" 
Africa. 

(4) The mountains of South Africa, terminat- 
ing in Table Mountain, in Cape Colony. 

(5) The Kong Mountains, along the Guinea 
Coast. Swinton^s Geog., pp. 119, 120. 

106. The African rivers are few in number, 
though some of them are noted for their great 
length. The most important are the Nile, Niger, 
Congo, Zambesi, and Orange. Id., p. 120. 

107. In the equatorial region of Africa is a series 
of lakes which in size rival, if they do not surpass, 
the Great Lakes of North America. The largest 



318 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

of these are lakes Albert, Victoria, and Tangan- 
yika. Id., p. 120. 

108. The productions of Africa comprise grain, 
cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, indigo, ivory, ebony, 
ostrich feathers, palm oil, and tropical fruits. 

MonteiWs Comprehensive Geog., p. S^, 

109. All the native governments are despotisms, 
and, except in Egypt and the Barbary States, are 
of the rudest and simplest description. 

Harper^ s School Geog., p. 117. 

110. The population of Africa is estimated at 
193,000,000. They belong to two races, the Cau- 
casian, and the Ethiopian. 

Eclectic Intermediate Geog.^ p. 80. 

111. Egypt, the most important and most inter- 
esting country of Africa, occupies the lower portion 
of the Nile valley, reaching from the Mediterranean 
to the first cataract, a distance of between 500 and 
600 miles. Swinton's Geog., p. 120. 

112. Egypt is celebrated for its magnificent pyra- 
mids, temples, obelisks, statues, and tombs built 
more than four thousand years ago. 

3Ionteith^s Comprehensive Geog., p. 8 If,. 

113. Egypt, N"ubia, Abyssinia, Morocco, Algeria, 
Tunis, Tripoli, the Sahara, Soudan and Equatorial 
Africa, Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea 
Coast, Cape Colony and Natal, Orange Free State, 
Transvaal Republic, Madagascar and Zanzebar. 

Swinton^s Geog.,p. 123. 

114. Australia comprises the continental island 
of Australia and the large islands of New Guinea, 
New Zealand, Tasmania (or Van Diemen Land,) 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 819 

together with many small islands and groups of 
islands adjacent to Australia. Id.^ p. 125. 

115. The inhabitants are chiefly British, and 
their principal occupations are mining, agriculture, 
and grazing. The original inhabitants of Austra- 
lia are sliortand stout, with small heads, flat noses, 
thick protruding lips, long, coarse hair, and of a 
black or dark brown complexion. 

MonieWs Comprehensive Geog., p. 87. 

116. (1) Queensland occupies the north-eastern 
part of the continent. Brisbane is the capital. 

(2) ISTew South Wales lies south of Queens- 
land. Sj^dney is the capital. 

(3) Victoria lies south of New South Wales. 
Melbourne is the capital. 

(4) South Australia lies west of Victoria and 
New South Wales. The capital is Adelaide. 

(5) West Australia. Perth is the capital. 

(6 and 7) In North Australia and Alexandra 
Land, no settlements have j^et been made. 

(8) Tasmania. Hobart Town is the capital. 
Eclectic Intermediate Geog., p. 83. 

117. The colonies are politically independent of 
one another, and are governed by representatives 
chosen by universal suffrage, and by executive of- 
ficers appointed by the crown. 

Harper's School Geog., p. 112. 

118. Oceanica is the great island division of the 
earth. It includes Malaysia, Australia and Poly- 
nesia. The extent of the land surface is 4,500,000 
square miles, Mitchell's Intermediate Geog., p. 97. 



/ 
320 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Define physical geography. 

2. Into what classes may the objects of which 
physical geography treats, be divided ? 

3. What is the probable condition of the inte- 
rior of the earth ? 

4. What considerations indicate that the earth 
is still in a molten condition? 

5. What phenomena does the heated interior 
produce? 

6. What is a volcano ? 

7. What is the usual shape of a volcano? 

8. Where else may the crater be located ? 

9. What is the width of craters ? 

10. Upon what does the slope of volcanoes de- 
pend? 

11. Into what two classes may they be divided? 

12. Define active volcanoes. 

13. Define extinct volcanoes. 

14. What is the number of volcanoes? 

15. What is their ordinary arrangement? 

16. Give examples. 

17. What apparent exceptions to this rule? 

18. What is the peculiarity in the distribution 
of volcanoes? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 321 

19. What explanation is given of this fact? 

20. Locate the two volcanic zones which encir- 
cle the earth. 

21. In what regions of the earth is the greatest 
volcanic activity displayed ? 

22. What theory is advanced as a possible cause 
of volcanoes? 

23. Mention other volcanic phenomena. 

24. What are earthquakes? 

25. What three kinds of earthquake movement 
have been noted ? 

26. What is the usual duration of earthquakes? 

27. What is an earthquake area? 

28. What is the cause of earthquakes? 

29. What is the law of their distribution? 

30. What connection exists between volcanoes 
and earthquakes? 

31. What relation between earthquakes and at- 
mospheric conditions ? 

32. Where are the land masses of the globe lo- 
cated ? 

33. Of what does the land consist? 

34. Under what two aspects may the land be 
studied ? 

35. What separation of the land masses is marked 
by the zone of fracture? 

36. What is the common form of the land masses ? 

37. What difference in the direction of prolonga- 
tion between the eastern and western continents? 

38. What difference in other respects results from 
this ? 

21 



322 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

39. What differences in outline do the continents 
exhibit? 

40. What influence has the articulations of coast 
upon a country and its people? 

41. What fact is true of well articulated coun- 
tries ? 

42. How do the continents compare in this re- 
spect? 

43. What constitutes the relief of a country? 

44. What two forms of relief exist ? 

45. What influence has the relief of a country 
upon its climate, life, etc.? 

46. What proportion of the continents is occu- 
pied by plains? 

47. How may plains be classified as to their for- 
mation and difierences in character of surface ? 

48. What are plateaus ? 

49. Define a mountain chain. 

50. Define a mountain system. 

51. How are mountains supposed to have been 
formed ? 

52. What two classes of mountains as to manner 
of formation ? 

53. What two classes of valleys? 

54. What are continental axes ? 

55. What general law of relief has been observed 
from a study of the continents ? 

56. What proportion of the land surface do the 
islands form ? 

57. What two classes of islands ? 

58. Define continental islands. 

59. What similarity do they bear to the main- 
land, and what does this indicate ? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 323 

60. Define oceanic islands? 

61. What two classes of oceanic islands? 

62. How do continental islands compare in size 
with oceanic islands? 

68. What contrast in the rock material of the 
two classes of islands? 

64. Describe the common forms of coral islands. 

65. Upon what are coral islands built? 

66. Where are coral islands found, and w^hy are 
they confined to these regions? 

67. What office do the waters of the earth per- 
form ? 

68. What is the composition of water? 

69. What important peculiarity does water pos- 
sess? 

70. What is the great reservoir of water? 

71. How are the waters dispersed over the earth ? 

72. What are the sources of rivers? 

73. Where are springs most numerous? 

74. Upon what does the temperature of springs 
depend? 

75. What is the river system? 

76. Define river basin. 

77. Define water-shed. 

78. Upon what does the volume of a river de- 
pend? 

79. What are canons? 

80. What are deltas and estuaries? 

81. What is erosion? 

82. Define lakes. 

83. What are mountain lakes? 

84. What place have lakes in the economy of 
nature ? 



324 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

85. What is the cause of the saltness of some 
lakes ? 

86. Where are lakes most numerous? 

87. How is the sea divided ? 

88. How are ocean basins divided? 

89. Describe the Pacific basin. 

90. Describe the Athmtic basin. 

91. Wherein do the ocean basins present great 
differences? 

92. How are coast waters classified ? 

93. What is known of the ocean bed? 

94. How are the depths estimated in the absence 
of soundings? 

95. What are the greatest depths of the sea? 

96. Describe waves. 

97. What causes the advance of the wave ? 

98. What retards or breaks it? 

99. Describe tides. 

100. Define flood and ebb tides. 

101. How are tides produced? 

102. What are tidal waves ? 

103. Define spring and neap tides. 

104. How is the height of tides modified? 

105. What phenomena are produced by these 
differences in level ? 

106. Describe oceanic currents. 

107. What is the cause of currents? 

108. To what three classes of currents does dif- 
ference of temperature give rise? 

109. What modifies the direction of the polar and 
return currents? 

110. What ofiice does the atmosphere of the 
earth perform? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 325 

111. What is its composition? 

112. What is the depth of the atmosphere? 

113. What effect does the great compression of 
the atmosphere at the earth's surface produce? 

114. What is chmate? 

115. Define astronomical climate. 

116. Define physical climate. 

117. What is the general law of astronomical 
climate. 

118. Why is temperature greater at the equator, 
and why does it gradually diminish toward the 
poles? 

119. What modifications of climate do the earth's 
motions produce ? 

120. Where are the general deviations from the 
astronomical climate most marked? 

121. What are isothermal lines ? 

122. Where are the extreme deviations from 
astronomical climate found? 

123. What difference between oceanic and conti- 
nental climate ? 

124. What is the origin of winds ? 

125. How may they be classified ? 

126. Where are the regions of these several 
classes of winds located ? 

127. What are the equatorial calms and how pro- 
duced? 

128. Name some important constant winds. 

129. What gives direction to these winds? 

130. lN"ame some periodical and variable winds. 

131. Upon what does the distribution of rain de- 
pend? 

132. How are clouds formed? 



326 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

133. Define dew, snow, hail, and frost. 

134. What portion of the earth's surface receives 
no rain, and why? 

135. Where are storms most violent? 

136. Describe glaciers. 

137. What is the origin of glaciers ? 

138. Where is the most remarkable glacier re- 
gion ? 

139. What evidences exist of former systems of 
glaciers ? 

140. What is the snow line ? 

141. What causes lightning and thunder? 

142. ^N'ame some other electrical phenomena. 

143. What constitutes the flora of a country? 

144. What gives variety to the plant life of the 
globe ? 

145. What two forms of distribution of vegeta- 
tion do we find ? 

146. In what region is found greatest luxuriance, 
and why ? 

147. What similarity exists between the vertical 
and horizontal distribution ? 

148. What constitutes the fauna of a country? 

149. What law of distribution prevails? 

150. What exception to this rule in the case of 
marine animals? 

151. What marks the range of animals? 

152. What exception to this rule? 

153. What appears to be the basis of distribution 
of plants? 

154. What modifies the fauna of each continent? 

155. What evidences exist as to the unity of the 
human race ? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 327 

156. What three strongly marked types exist? 

157. What three secondary races are found? 

158. What is supposed to have produced the di- 
versity of races? 

159. What is the law of perfection of type in 
man? 

160. Which is the typical or normal race ? 



328 THB NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Physical Geography treats of the earth in its 
relations to nature and natural laws. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 1, 

2. Physical Geography treats of five classes of 
objects, viz : Land, water, air, plants and animals. 

Id., f. 1. 

3. The interior is probably still in a semi-fluid 
or pasty condition. 

4. The spheroidal form of the earth is exactly 
what calculation shows would have been acquired, 
had the earth once been in a molten state and ex- 
posed to about the same velocity of rotation on its 
axis that it now has. This seems to point to a for- 
mer fluidity, and renders its probable that the pres- 
ent crust or solid part has been formed by the 
gradual cooling of the melted mass. The crust 
does not appear to have reached, as yet, any very 
considerable thickness, and the interior is, there- 
fore, probably still in a semi-fluid state. Id,, p. 20. 

5. Volcanoes, earthquakes, hot springs, non- 
volcanic igneous eruptions, and the gradual sub- 
sidences or elevations of the crust. Id., p. 21, 

6. A volcano is a mountain or other elevation, 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 329 

from which the materials of the interior escape to 
the surface. Id., j^- ■^^• 

7. A volcanic mountain is usually of conical 
shape, with a circular basin or depression at its 
summit, called the crater. In the center of the 
crater is the mouth of a perpendicular shaft or 
chimney. Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 12. 

8. It may be either on the top or sides of the 
mountain. Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 21. 

9. Craters differ greatly in size, the larger vary- 
ing from 2000 to 18,000 feet. 

CornelVs Phys. Geog., p 2 If.. 

10. The slope of a volcano depends on the mat- 
ter of which it is composed. Lava cones have 
very gentle slopes; tufa cones, or those originally 
formed of cinders wet with water and steam, have 
a steeper surface; and cones composed of dry cin- 
ders have the steepest slopes of all, their inclination 
sometimes being as great as 45 degrees Id.^ p. 21/,. 

11. Volcanoes may be distinguished as active and " 
extinct. Id., p. 2^. 

12. Active volcanoes are such as are either in a 
constant state of eruption, or have eruptions from 
time to time, with intervals of rest. Id., p. 2^, 

13. Extinct volcanoes are such as ai^ now at 
rest but were subject to eruptions in former ages, 
as is shown by their form and structure, and the 
presence of craters. Id., p. 24-. 

14. The number of volcanoes is not accurately 
known. The best authorities estimate it at about 
672, of which 270 are active. Of these latter, 175 
are on islands, and 95 on the coasts of continents. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 23. 



330 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

15. Volcanoes, though they are but local and 
apparently independent accumulations of materials, 
ordinarily occur in lines more or less irregular. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 15, 

16. The six volcanoes of Mexico are on a line 
which, when prolonged into the Pacific, strikes the 
volcanic island of Socorro. The volcanoes of South 
America are all on the line of the Andes; and 
those of Korth America, on the line of the Sierra 
Nevada and Cascade Mountains. Numerous exam- 
ples are also found in other quarters of the globe. 

Id., p. 15, 

17. The apparent exception to this rule is found 
where volcanoes seem isolated, or form groups con- 
sisting of a central volcano surrounded by second- 
ary cones. But even in this case the linear ar- 
rangement is apparent, since the groups themselves 
form long bands, as in the Polynesian Islands. ♦ 

Id., p. 15. 

18. Nearly all the volcanoes on the earth's sur- 
face are situated along the mountain ranges and 
belts of islands which skirt the shores of the con- 
tinents, while the interior is almost destitute of 
them. Id., p. 15. 

19. As 'Volcanoes are nothing but openings 
through the earth's crust, that permit an escape 
from the pasty interior, they will occur only where 
the crust is weakest. This will be on the borders 
of sinking oceans, in the line of fracture formed 
by the gradual separation of the ocean's bed from 
the coasts of the continent. 

Houston'' s Phys. Geog., p. '25. 

20. The first zone includes the vast array of 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 331 

mountain chains, peninsulas, and bands of islands 
which encircle the Pacific Ocean with a belt of 
burning mountains. The second zone, though less 
continuous, is hardly less remarkable. It is the 
belt of broken lands and inland seas, which, extend- 
ing round the globe, separates the northern from 
the southern continents. 

GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. 15. 

21. The volcanic forces display the greatest in- 
tensity at the intersections of the two volcanic 
zones, in Central America and the East Indian 
Archipelago. /c?., p. 16. 

22. The rain-water which, having entered the 
ground, instead of reappearing in the form of 
springs or artesian wells, penetrates deep into these 
subterranean cavities, may become so heated, un- 
der the high pressure to which it is subject, as to 
produce the usual volcanic phenomena. 

Id,, p, 16, 

23. Mud volcanoes — small hillocks that emit 
streams of hot mud and water from their craters, 
but never molten rock. Fields of fire. In certain 
localities inflammable gas issues from openings in 
the ground. When lighted it burns for a consid- 
erable time. Solfataras — regions where sulphur 
vapors escape, forming incrustations. 

Houston's Phys. Geog.y pp. 25, 26. 

24. Earthquakes are movements of the earth's 
crust, varying in intensity from a hardly percepti- 
ble vibration to violent convulsions, which change 
the face of the ground and overthrow the most sub- 
stantial works of man. 

GuyoVs Phys, Geog,, p. 16, 



332 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

25. (1) The wave-like or undulatory. 

(2) The vertical motioQ which acts from be- 
neath like the explosion of a mine. 

(3) The whirling or rotary motion. 

Id., p. 16. 

26. When the area of disturbance is large, shocks 
of varying intensity generally follow each other at 
irregular intervals. Though, in general, the vio- 
lence of the shock is soon passed, disturbances 
may occur at intervals of days and weeks, or even 
years. Houston's Phys. Geog.y p. 26, 

27. There are circumscribed regions in which the 
surface is liable to be shaken simultaneously, such 
a region being called an earthquake area. 

GuyoVs Phys, Geog. , p. 17. 

28. It is now generally believed that the princi- 
pal cause of earthquakes is the strain produced by 
the contraction of a cooling crust. 

Houston s Phys. Geog,, p, 27, 

29. Earthquakes may occur in any part of the 
world, but are most frequent in volcanic districts. 
They are more frequent in mountainous than in 
flat countries. Id., p. 27, 

30. The analogy in the distribution of earthquakes 
and volcanoes is evident, yet the former occupy a 
far more extensive domain than the latter. Both 
are most intense in their action along the great 
fractures of the earth's crust; yet we are not, on 
that account, to conclude that the one is the cause 
of the other; they only require similar conditions 
for their manifestation. 

GuyoVs Phys, Geog., p. 17, 

31. Within the tropics, especially, earthquakes 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 333 

are most frequent in that part of the year in which 
the greatest atmospheric disturbances take place. 
They are most dreaded at the beginning of the 
rainy season, when the monsoons are changing di- 
rection. Id., f. 17. 

32. The land masses are crowded together around 
the north pole, the northern limits being about the 
78th parallel. Thence they extend towards the 
south in three vast divergent tracts, terminating in 
points widely separated one from another. 

Id., p. n. 

33. The land consists of six great bodies, called 
continents, and a multitude of small fragments 
called islands, which skirt the shores of the conti- 
nents, or dot the broad expanse of the sea. 

Id., p. 21 

34. Every continent presents itself to the ob- 
server in a twofold aspect — as a surface, with pe- 
culiarities of horizontal form and outline, given by 
the line of contact of laud and water; and as a 
solid, with peculiarities of vertical form, given by 
the elevation of its surface above the level of the 
sea. Id., p. 22. 

35. Each of the three tracts of land is invaded 
nearly midway by the ocean, or by great inland 
seas, from which there results, in each, a belt of 
broken lands, peninsulas and islands. Within this 
belt are the great archipelagoes of the East and 
West Indies, and the peninsulas of Southern Asia 
and Europe. ^ Id., p. 21. 

36. Every great continental mass has a figure 
more or less triangular. Australia alone ap- 
proaches a quadrilateral form. Id., p. 22. 



334 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

37. In the two Americas, the sharpest angle of 
the continental figure is turned towards the south, 
and the greatest elongation is in the direction of 
the meridians. In Asia-Europe, on the contrary, 
the sharpest angle is towards the west, and the 
greatest elongation of the double continent is in 
the direction of the parallels. In Africa and Aus- 
tralia, the greatest extent from east to w^est is ap- 
proximately equal to that from north to south. 

Id., p. 22, 

38. America, extending about 9,000 miles from 
north to south, traverses all the climatic zones, ex- 
hibiting, as a result, great variety in the character 
of its plants and animals. Asia-Europe having, 
also, a length of 9,000 miles, has, from the Pacific 
shores to the Atlantic a general similarity of cli- 
mate, vegetation and animals. Id., p. 22. 

39. The outlines of the continents exhibit strik- 
ing differences. Some are deeply indented with 
gulfs and inland seas; while others present a mas- 
sive form without indentations or projections wor- 
thy of notice. Id., p. 22, 

40. They increase the length of coast line, and 
the contact of land and water; they favor the for- 
mation. of convenient harbors, and open the interior 
of the continents to commerce by sea. The sea 
penetrating into the land moderates the extremes 
of temperature, and increases the moisture of the 
atmosphere. Again, the subdivision of the con- 
tinents into peninsulas, Arming diverse physical 
regions, secures a higher development of human 
society by assisting in the formation of distinct na- 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 835 

tionalities; like those created in the great penin- 
sulas of India and Arabia, Greece, Italy and Spain. 

Id,, pp. 22, 23. 

41. The deeply indented, well articulated conti- 
nents are, and have always been, the abode of the 
most highly civilized nations. Id., p. 23. 

42. Europe surpasses all the other continents in 
the relative magnitude of its indentations and pro- 
jections; Asia is second; North America, though 
considerabl}^ less indented, still has peninsulas bear- 
ing to its entire area the proportion of 1 : 14. The 
southern continents, on the contrar}^, are nowhere 
deeply penetrated by the waters of the ocean. 

Id. , p. 23. 

43. The vertical configuration of a continent or 
island — that is, its elevation as a whole, varied by 
plains, table-lands, mountains and valleys — is called 
its relief. Id., p. 2Jf.. 

44. Elevations in mass, and linear elevations. 

45. A difference in altitude of no more than 830 
feet, is sufficient to produce a difference in temper- 
ature of 1° Fahrenheit, being equivalent to a dif- 
ference of seventy miles in latitude. An increase 
in altitude of but a few thousand feet, therefore, 
changes entirely the character of a region, like a 
removal of it from torrid to temperate latitudes, or 
from temperate to frigid. The relief also controls 
the drainage of a continent, and influences, to a 
certain extent, the direction and character of the 
winds and the distribution of rain. Id., p. 24-. 

46. Plains cover nearly one-half of the land sur- 
face of the earth. In the eastern continent they 



336 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

lie mainly in the north ; in the western they oc- 
cupy the central portions. 

Houston's Phys, Geog., p. Jfi, 

47. Alluvial plains are formed of materials de- 
posited by rivers upon overflov^ed lands. Marine 
plains, so called because they seem to have been 
formed under sea water, and resemble the sandy 
bottom of an ancient ocean. Undulating plains 
have the surface varied by swells of greater or less 
elevation, but rarely above the general level. 

GuyoVs Phys. Geog.^ p. ^4" 

48. Plateaus, also called table lands and high 
plains, are tracts, either level or diversified by hill 
and vale, having an elevation of more than one 
thousand feet above sea level. 

CorneWs Phys. Geog., p, 16. 

49. In a mountain chain, the crest or summit of 
the range separates into a number of detached por- 
tions, called peaks; below the peaks the entire 
range is united in a solid mass. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog. , p. 4,1, 

50. A mountain system is a name given to sev- 
eral connected chains or ranges. Id.^p. 40. 

51. Most mountain chains seem to have been 
produced by tremendous lateral pressure in por- 
tions of the earth's crust, causing either long folds 
or deep fissures with upturned edges rising into 
high ridges, the broken strata forming ragged 
peaks. GnyoVs Phys. Geog., p. 26. 

52. There are two distinct types of mountain 
chains — mountains by folding, which are generally 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 337 

of moderate elevation; and mountains by fracture, 
to which belong the highest chains of the globe. 

Id., p. '26, 

53. Valleys are either longitudinal or transverse. 

Warren^ s Phys. Geog.^p. W, 

54. The great dividing ridges, from which the 
continent, as a whole, shapes in opposite directions, 
may be called the main axis of the continent. The 
less highlands, separating into opposite slopes the 
part of the continent in which they are situated, 
form a secondary axis. 

Guyoth Phys. Geog., p. 30. 

55. All the long, gentle slopes descend towards 
the Atlantic Ocean and its prolongation, the Arc- 
tic ; while all the short and rapid slopes are directed 
towards the Pacific, and its dependent, the Indian 
Ocean, the highest lands being adjacent to the 
shores of the greatest oceans. 

GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. 4^. 

56. Of the 53,000,000 square miles of land, nearly 
3,000,000, or about one-seventeenth, is composed of 
islands. Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p. 36. 

57. Islands are either continental or oceanic. 

Id., p. 36. 

58. Continental islands are those that lie near 
the shores of continents. Id., p. 36. 

59. From the close resemblance they generally 
bear to the geological structure of the mainland, 
they are probably but continuations of the neigh- 
boring mountain ranges, or continental elevations. 
They may, therefore, be regarded as the projections 
of submerged portions of the neighboring conti- 

22 



338 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

nents. They have in general, the same lines of trend 
as the shores of the mainland. Id., p. 36, 

60. Oceanic islands comprise those far away from 
the continents. Id., p. 38. 

61. Isolated oceanic islands are mainly of two 
kinds, the volcanic and the coral. Id., p. 38. 

62. Continental islands, as a rule, are larger than 
oceanic islands. Id., p. 37. 

63. The rocks which make np the body of the 
continents and continental islands — sandstone, slate, 
granite, and the various metamorphic rocks — are 
entirely wanting in oceanic islands. The latter are 
composed either of volcanic substances, or of lime- 
stone. GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. J^. 

64. Though of a great variety of shapes, they 
agree in one particular, viz : They consist of a 
low, narrow rim of coral rock, enclosing a body of 
water called a lagoon. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 38, 

65. Reef-buildmg polyps do not live below the 
depth of 100 or 120 feet, and hence require a foun- 
dation near the surface. This is furnished by sub- 
marine mountains and plateaus, or the slopes of 
volcanic cones which form the high islands. . 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p, 44-' 

66. According to Dana, the reef-forming coral 
polyp is not found in regions where the mean an- 
nual temperature of the waters exceeds 68° Fahr. 
Coral islands are therefore confined to those parts 
of tropical waters where the depth does not greatly 
exceed 100 feet, and which are protecte(3 from cold 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 339 

ocean currents, from the influence of fresh river 
waters, and are remote from active volcanoes. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog.^ p. 39. 

67. By disintegrating and rearranging the mate- 
rials of the earth's crust, it was the principal agent 
in shaping what is now the solid land. It is equally 
indispensable in carrying on the processes of vege- 
table and animal life, as it forms the larger part 
of all organized bodies. 

Guyofs Phys, Geog., p. Jf7, 

68. Water is a liquid, composed of two gases, 
oxygen and hydrogen, chemically combined in the 
ratio, by weight, of eight to one. Id.^p. Jf7. 

69. Water contracts in volume with a diminution 
of its temperature, until reduced to 39.2° Fahr., 
where its density is greatest. Below this tempera- 
ture it expands. Id.yp.4-7. 

But for this curious exception in the physical 
properties of fresh water, at least three fourths of 
the habitable globe would be incapable of sustain- 
ing its present life. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog.^ p. 5 If.. 

70. The great reservoir of terrestrial waters is 
the sea. GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. ^7. 

71. By slow but constant evaporation the water 
is lifted into the atmosphere in the form of vapor, 
which, borne by the winds to the continents, is 
there condensed and falls in beneficent rains. 

Id., p. 47. 

72. The water which issues from the ground as 
springs, which is derived from the melting of ice 
or snow, or which drains directly from the surface 
after rainfall, runs down the slopes of the land and 



340 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

collects ill the depressions formed by the intersec- 
tion of the slopes, in rills or rivulets, which at last 
combine in larger streams, called rivers. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p. 58. 

73. Springs are most numerous in and around 
mountainous regions. Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 4-S. 

74. The temperature of a spring depends much 
on that of the strata through which its waters pass. 
Some springs are icy cold, particularly mountain 
regions. Others, coming from considerable depths, 
are warm, hot, and even boiling. Their heat is at- 
tributed in some cases to volcanic, and in others to 
chemical, action. CornelVs Phys. Geog., p. 36. 

75. Rivers that discharge their waters into the 
same ocean or its arms, constitute what is called a 
river system. Four systems, the Atlantic, Arctic, 
Pacific and Indian, embrace all the rivers of the 
globe, except a few which are absorbed in the sand, 
and others that empty into certain inland seas, or 
lakes not connected with the ocean, whose waters 
are carried off by evaporation. 7c/., p. 39. 

76. The entire area of land which drains into 
the river system is called its basin. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p. 58. 

77. The ridge or elevation which separates two 
opposite slopes, is called a water-shed. 

Id., p. 58. 

78. The amount of water transported by a stream 
is by no means proportionate to the extent of its 
basin, nor to the length of its course, but depends 
on the amount of rain falling upon the area drained, 
and the ratio of evaporation to rainfall throughout 
the basin. Extensive forests in a river basin aug- 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 341 

ment the volume of water, for they both increase 
the rainfall and retard the evaporation of water 
from the soil. Guyofs Phys. Geog.j p. 1^8. 

79. A deep gorge, ravine or gulch be.tween high 
and steep banks, worn by water courses. 

Wehsl&TS Unabridged Dictionary. 

80. Deltas and estuaries are terms appled to dif- 
ferent forms of river-mouths. A delta is formed 
by the detritus or earthy material which the river 
carries along from the upper part of its basin, and 
which, owing to the decrease of velocity, it deposits 
near the mouth. Warren^s Phys. Geog.^p. 38, 

81. The wearing away by rivers of the rock-ma- 
terials over which they flow, is called erosion. 

Id., p. 87. 

82. Lakes are bodies of water collected in depres- 
sions of the land. /c?., p. 4^1, 

83. Mountain lakes are valleys or chasms filled 
by streams. They are long and narrow, rarely of 
extensive area, but often of great depth. 

GuyoVs Phys. Geog.j p. SI. 

84. They form reservoirs, which, receiving the 
surplus waters in time of freshets, equalize the 
flow of rivers and prevent destructive inundations. 
In their basins the wild mountain torrents find rest, 
and the muddy waters deposit their sediment, and 
flow out pure and transparent with a gentle cur- 
rent. GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. 51. 

85. The surfaces of the continents having been 
the beds of the primeval oceans, the presence of 
salt in the soil is a natural consequence. Fresh 
water streams and lakes were formed only after 
the soil had been thoroughly washed by rains, and 



842 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the salt carried away by streams into the ocean. 
If the streams receiving the substances washed 
from the soil by the rainfall, do not flow away to 
the ocean, but enter inland basins without outlet, 
the lakes formed in those basins will necessarily be 
salt. Id., p. SI, 

86. Lakes are most numerous in the central and 
northern portions of Asia, Europe, and IlTorth 
America. The southern continents, except Africa, 
have comparatively few. Id., p. 52. 

87. The waters of the sea are separated by the 
lands into three great oceans, which are the coun- 
terparts of the land masses. Id., p. 59, 

88. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are subdi- 
vided, each having a northern and southern basin, 
corresponding to the northern and southern conti- 
nents. The Indian Ocean has only a southern ba- 
sin ; but the vast depression between Asia and 
Europe, in the bottom of which lie the Caspian 
and Aral Seas, may be considered as, in a certain 
sense, its complement. The Arctic is properly a 
continuation of the Atlantic ; the Antartic, also, is 
not properly a separate ocean, but is the common 
center from which the three great basins radiate. 

Id., p. 59. 

89. The Pacific is oval in outline and broadly 
open at the south, but is nearly closed at the north. 

Id., p. 59. 

90. The Atlantic basin has been likened by Hum- 
boldt to a long valley, with approximately parallel 
sides. This is the only basin widely open at the 
north, and, stretching from pole to pole, it forms 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 343 

I 

the only complete channel for the interchange of 
polar and equatorial waters. Id., p, 59, 

91. The three great ocean basins difier in regard 
to the position and character of the branches, by 
which the coasts of the continents are indented. 

Id., p. 59. 

92. Coast waters may be classified, according to 
their form and their position in respect to the ad- 
jacent lauds, as inland seas, border seas, and gulfs 
or bays. Id., p. 59, 

93. Little is known, in detail, in regard to the 
conformation of the bottom of the sea. But nu- 
merous soundings, both in shallow shore waters 
and in the deep sea, have given us an approximate 
idea of the nature of the beds of the Atlantic 
Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, 
and the Red Sea. Id., p, 59, 

The bed of the ocean, though diversified like 
the surface of the land, contains fewer irregulari- 
ties. N^umerous soundings show that it extends, 
for immense distances, in long undulations and 
slopes. Its plateaus and plains, therefore, are of 
great size, compared with those of the continents. 
Submerged mountain ranges occur mainly along 
the shores, and belong, properly, to the continental 
systems of elevations. 

Houston's Phys. Geog,., p. 67. 

94. In the absence of soundings, ocean depth has 
been calculated from the velocity of the tide-wave 
and earthquake weaves crossing it, which depends 
upon the depth of the basin in which the waves 
move. Guyot, p. 60. 

95. Observations thus far made justify the con- 



344 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

elusion that the greatest depths of the sea are from 
25,000 to 30,000 feet, about equivalent to the great- 
est heights upon the continents. Id.y p. 60. 

96. Waves are ridges of water, produced by the 
friction of the winds on the surface. The stronger 
the wind, the higher the waves rise, the farther 
they are apart, and the deeper the trough between 
them. CornelVs Phys. Geog., p. 32. 

97. The advance of the wave is the communica- 
tion of the wave movement to successive portions 
of the sea; and not, to any considerable extent, ex- 
cept in shallows, an onward movement of the water 
itself. GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. 61. 

98. When waves, advancing towards the shore 
reach the shallows, the motion is retarded at the 
bottom by friction ; and the top, moving on with- 
out support, curls over and breaks in foam upon 
the beach ; or in very shallow seas, it may break 
at a considerable distance from the shore. 

Id., p. 61. 

99. Tides are the periodical risings and fallings 
of the water, caused by the attraction of the sun 
and moon. The alternate risings and fallings suc- 
ceed each other with great regularity, and consume 
about six hours each. Unlike waves, tides affect 
the waters of the ocean to great depths. 

Houston^s Phys. Geog.., p. 69. 

100. The rising of the water is called flood tide; 
the falling, ebb tide. Id., p. 69. 

101. Tides are produced by the attraction of the 
moon and sun, — principally that of the former, — 
acting with different degrees or force of different 
parts of the earth. Cornell's Phys. Geog., p 33, 



• PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 345 

102. The moon attracts both the land and the 
eea; but the particles of the latter being free to 
move, the waters are drawn towards the attracting 
body; and where its influence is most powerful, 
are lifted up above the normal curve of the surface 
of the sea. Thus is formed a vast swell, or tide 
wave, upon the hemisphere turned towards the 
moon. Guyofs Fhys. Geog.. p. 61. 

103. When the sun and moon act together, on 
the same hemisphere of the earth, the tidal wave 
is higlier than usual. The flood tides are then 
highest, and the ebb tides lowest. These are called 
spring tides. They occur twice during ever\^ revo- 
lution of the moon — once at full, and once at new 
moon. When the sun and moon are 90° apart, or 
in quadrature, each produces a tide on the portion 
of the earth directly under it, diminishing some- 
what that produced by the other body. High tide 
then occurs under the moon, while tlie high tide 
caused by the sun becomes, by comparison, a low 
tide. Such tides are called neap tides. 

Houstoris Phys. Geog., p. 79. 

104. The height of the tide depends on local cir- 
cumstances. In the midst of the Paciflc, it is 
scarcely more than two feet, which may be consid- 
ered its normal level. But when dashins: asrjunst 
the land, or forced into deep gulfs and estuaries, 
the accumulating tide w^aters sometimes reach a 
great height. GuyoVs Phys. Geog., p. 61}.. 

105. Differences in level, produced by high tides, 
cause currents which vary in force and direction 
with the condition of the tide, producing in some 
cases, dangerous whirlpools. The famous msel- 



846 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Strom, off the coast of I^orway, is but a tidal cur- 
rent. Such is also the famous whirlpool of Charyb- 
dis, in the Strait of Messina, and many others of 
less note. Id., p. 64-. 

106. The ocean currents are vast rivers in the 
sea, which move on steadily through water com- 
paratively at rest, and are often different from the 
latter in color and temperature. Some are hun- 
dreds of miles broad, thousands of feet deep, and 
have a course embracing the larger part of the 
ocean in which they move. Id., p. 65, 

107. The main causes of these vast movements 
in the ocean are found in the winds, the excessive 
evaporation within the tropics which tends to lower 
the level of the water there, and the diiiering tem- 
peratures of polar and equatorial regions. The 
cold waters of tlie higher latitudes, being heavier, 
tend constantly to flow into the warmer waters of 
the equatorial seas; and the latter, being displaced 
by tlie former, flow away as surface currents to- 
wards the poles. Id., p. 65, 

108. Polar, equatorial, and return currents. 

Id, p. 65, 

109. The polar and return currents, were they 
acted upon by no external force, would move in the 
line of the meridians, taking the shortest course 
between the poles and the equator. Both are, 
however, deflected from this course by the unceasing 
action of the earth's rotation, — the polar currents, 
as tliey advance, tending more and more towards 
the west, and the return currents towards the east; 
and their directions are still farther modified by the 
forms of the basins of the several oceans, and the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 347 

influence of the prevailing winds in the different 
zones. I(L, p. 65. 

110. In the economy of the globe, the atmos- 
phere is of the greatest importance. It supplies 
animals and plants with air, retains and modifies 
the solar heat, and carries moisture over the surface 
of the land, where it descends as rain or snow. 
Without the atmosphere the earth would be a bar- 
ren and lifeless waste. 

Warren's Phys. Geog., p. SO. 

111. The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of 
oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion by volume, 
of 21 parts of the former to 79 of the latter; with 
a very small quantity of carbonic acid, and more or 
less of watery vapor held in suspension. 

Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 68. 

112. Calculations based upon the diminution of 
pressure with the heiglit, estimate it at from 45 to 
50 miles; others, based on the duration of twilight, 
at distances varying from 35 to 200 miles. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p. 79. 

113. It will be seen that one-half of the entire at- 
mosphere, by weight, is condensed within 3|- 
miles — about 18,000 feet — of the sea level; and 
fully two-thirds are below the level of the summit 
of the highest mountains. This fact has an im- 
portant bearing, both on the influence of moun- 
tains in directing or modifying the course of the 
winds, and on the general climatic phenomena of 
the globe. GuoyVs Phys. Geog., p. 69. 

114. The physical agencies acting through the 
atmosphere upon organic life, constitute climate, of 



348 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

which heat and moisture are the essential elements, 
the winds being the medium of circulation. 

Id., p. 70. 

115. The general climatic conditions belonging 
to a region, and depending upon its latitude, con- 
stitute its astronomical diinate. Id., p. 70. 

116. Tiie climate belonging to a place, by its lati- 
tude, is usually modified, to a greater or less ex- 
tent, by secondary physical agencies — among which 
are the general atmospheric and marine currents, 
the differing power of land and water to absorb 
and radiate heat, and the altitude of the surface. 
The astronomical climate of a region thus modified, 
is its real or physical climate. Id., pt. 70. 

117. The amount of heat produced by the sun 
upon the earth's surface, is greatest near the equa- 
tor, and diminishes gradually towards the poles. 

Id., p. 70. 

118. (1) In the Equatorial regions the sun's rays 
are perpendicular to the surface of the sphere, and 
there produce their maximum efiect; but, on ac- 
count of the curved outline of the o:lobe, thev fall 
more and more obliquely with increasing latitude, 
and the intensity of action diminishes proportion- 
ately. At the poles they are tangent to the sur- 
face, and their efi'ect is zero. 

(2) The area on which a given amount of 
heating power is expended is least at the Equator, 
consequently the resulting heat is greatest. 

(3) The absorption of heat by the atmos- 
phere as the sun's rays pass through it, is least 
where they fall perpendicularly — that is, in the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 349 

Equatorial regions, and increases, with their in- 
creasing obliquity, towards the poles. /cZ. , p. 70. 

119. In consequence of the inclination of the 
axis, the declination of the sun, or its angular dis- 
tance from the Equator, varies with the advance of 
the earth in its orbit, causing periodical variations 
in the length of day and night, and consequently 
in temperature. Jc?., p. 70. 

120. The general deviations from the astronom- 
ical climate occur chiefly in the middle latitudes. 

/d,p. 72, 

121. Humboldt devised a series of lines known 
as isothermals^ or lines of equal average temperature, 
in order to illustrate the actual distribution of heat, 
irrespective of latitude. Each line connects places 
having the same mean temperature, either of the 
year, a season, or any one month. Annual isother- 
mals show the average temperature belonging to 
the places which the}^ connect; the monthly and 
season isothermals show the distribution of heat" 
throughout the year. Id., p. 72. 

122. The extreme deviations occur on the coasts 
of the north Atlantic, western Europe being very 
much warmer than eastern America in correspond- 
ing latitudes. Id., p. 72. 

123. In general the climate of the oceans is char- 
acterized by uniformity, the difference between the 
summer and the winter temperature being compar- 
atively slight. The continental climate, on the 
contrary, is characterized by sudden changes, and 
extremes, the difference between the summer and 
the winter temperature, in middle and high lati- 
tudes, being excessive. Id., p. 7S. 



350 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

124. "Winds are masses of air in motion. They 
somewhat resemble currents in the ocean, and re- 
sult from the same causes, viz: the disturbance in 
the equilibrium of the atmosphere by heat, and by 
the rotation of the earth. 

Houston^s Phys. Geog., p. S3. 

125. As constant, or those which blow contin- 
ually in one direction, as the Trade-winds; peri- 
odical, or those which blow at certain periods only, 
as the Monsoons, Land and Sea Breezes; and varia- 
ble, or those which occur at irregular intervals. 

CornelVs Phys. Geog., p. 50. 

126. The law of atmospheric circulation gives 
rise to three distinctly marked wind zones, on each 
side of the equator, namely : 

(1) The zone of constant winds, extending to 
latitude 25° or 30°. 

(2) The zone of variable winds, with alternate 
polar and equatorial currents dominating, extend- 
ing thence to latitude 60°, or near the polar circles ; 
and 

(3) The zone of prevailing, though not con- 
stant, polar winds. Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 77. 

127. The boundary between the north-east and 
south-east trades, is formed by the zone of the 
ascending current, from 4° to 6° in breadth, adja- 
cent to the thermal equator. The mean position 
of tliis zone is in the Atlantic, between 3° and 9° 
north latitude; in the Pacific, between 4° and 8° 
north. In the continents it is usually found be- 
tween 3° south, and 4° north latitude. Here the 
ascending current overpowers the horizontal; and, 
as the upward motion is not perceptible to the ob- 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 351 

server, the atmosphere seems to be in a state of 
rest; hence this belt is designated the Zone of 
Equatorial Calms. Id.yjp. 77. 

128. The trade-winds, so called from their influ- 
ence on the trade of all maritime nations. 

Cornell's Phys. Geog.^ p. SO. 

129. The rotation of the earth on its axis gives 
the lower currents an easterly, and the upper cur- 
rents a westerly direction. Id.j p. 60. 

130. Monsoons, and land and sea breezes. The 
most remarkable variable winds are whirlwinds 
and hurricanes, typhoons, or cyclones. 

Id., pp. 50, 51. 

131. The quantity of moisture in the air depends 
on its temperature, and its vicinity to the sea. The 
amount of precipitation regularly decreases as we 
pass from the equator to the poles, and from the 
coasts of the continents towards the interior. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 93. 

132. Clouds or fos^s result whenever two bodies 
of air of different temperatures are mingled, espe- 
cially if, as is generally the case, the warmer of the 
two is the moister. Id , p, P^. 

133. Dew is the moisture collected during the 
night, in the form of small drops of water, on the 
surface of plants and other bodies. Frost is frozen 
dew. Snow is frozen moisture, produced in the 
same manner as rain. It can only fall in regions 
where the temperature of the air is at or below the 
freezing point. Hail is frozen rain. 

Warren's Phys. Geog , pp. 60, 6^. 

134. The rainless regions of the old, as well as 



352 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the new world, lie almost entirely within the zones 
of the trade-winds. Id.,p.6S. 

There are certain regions of the globe, esti- 
mated in all at five and a half millions of square 
miles, in which rain never falls. This is, for the 
most part, owins^ to the fact that the witids are de- 
prived of their moisture before reaching these dis- 
tricts, either by encountering some mountain chain 
or by blowing over extensive arid tracts. 

CorneWs Pliys. Geog., p. 56, 

135. The most remarkable for violence, and for 
the regularity of their course, are the hurricanes 
of the West Indies and of Mauritius in the Indian 
Ocean, the typhoons of the South China Sea, and 
the cvclones of the Gulf of Beno^al. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog.^ p. 82. 

136. Glaciers are immense masses of ice and 
snow, which move with extreme slowness down 
the liiglier mountain valleys or slopes. Their up- 
per p irts are formed of soft snow ; their lower por- 
tions of clear, hard ice. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p, 100. 

137. The weight of the huge snow fields, which 
form above the snow line, presses the mass slowly 
down the slopes. The pressure, due to the weight 
of the superincumbent layers, but especially that 
which is produced when the mass is forced through 
a contraction in the valley, squeezes out the con- 
fined air, to which snow, in great part, owes its 
white color, and the lower part of the glacier thus 
becomes changed into a compact mass of pure ice. 
The alternate thawing and freezing to which the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 353 

mass is subjected below the snow line, also con- 
tributes to the change from snow to ice. 

Id,, p, 100. 

138. The best known, and probably most re- 
markable, glacier region is that of the high Alps, 
in the heart of which are Mount Blanc, Monte 
Rosa, and the Bernese Alps. 

Guy of s Physical Geog., p. 95. 

139. When they have deserted their former val- 
leys, evidences of their previous existence are to be 
found in the long lines of unstratified rocks and 
mud left by their moraines in their boulders, and 
especially in the deep grooves, or scratches, cut in 
the bottom or sides of the valleys by imbedded 
rocks. These scratches are parallel, and show the 
direction of the motion. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 101. 

140. The lower limit of perpetual snow, called 
the snow line, is found within the tropics, about 
three miles above the sea level. In temperate lat- 
itudes it occurs at the height of a little less than 
two miles; and at the northern limit of the conti- 
nents, it is about half a mile above the level of the 
sea, or perhaps even less than this. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., pp. 9^, 93. 

141. Lightning results when the electricity of a 
cloud discharges to the earth or a neighboring 
cloud. The discharge is due to the union of the 
positive and negative electricities of the cloud and 
neighboring object, and is attended by a vivid 
epark, called lightning. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 102. 
23 



354 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Thunder is caused by the violent displacement 
of the air, produced by the passage of the light- 
ning and its rush back again into the partial 
vacuum created. Warren's Phys. Geog.,p. 65. 

142. St. Elmo's fire and the Aurora Borealis and 
Aurora Australis. Guyofs Phys. Geog., p, 96. 

143. The plants of any section of country taken 
together are called its flora. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p 110. 

144. The flora of difterent parts of the earth 
difter widely, by reason of differences in heat, 
moisture, light, slope and soil, particularly by the 
first two. Cornell's Phys. Geog.., p. 63. 

145. The influence of heat and moisture are no- 
ticed as we pass from the equator to the poles, or 
from the base of a tropical mountain to the summit. 
Thus arises a horizontal and vertical distribution 
of vegetation. Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 110. 

146. The greatest luxuriance of vegetation is 
found in the equatorial regions, where heat and 
moisture are most abundant. Id., p. 110. 

147. The observer, passing from the base to the 
summit of high mountains, in any latitude, finds 
variations in the character of the plants similar to, 
though not identical with, those observed in ad- 
vancing to higher latitudes. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 102. 

148. The animals found in any region of country 
are called its fauna. 

Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 120. 

149. As a rule, the luxuriance and diversity of 
animal life decrease as we pass from the equator to 
the poles. A similar decrease is noticed in passing 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 355 

from the coasts of the continents towards the in- 
terior. Id., p. 120, 

150. In marine animal life, the law of distribu- 
tion is reversed, both the number and size of the 
species increasing- from the equator towards the 
poles. This is probably due to the more equable 
temperature of the ocean in high latitudes. 

Id., p. 120. 

151. Large bodies of water, deserts, or mountain 
ranges, mark the boundaries of regions of animals 
as well as of plants; but the influence of tempera- 
ture is so, important that even when these natural 
barriers are wanting, the horizontal range of ani- 
mals is sharply marked by isothermal lines. 

Id., p. 121. 

152. Man, and his faithful friend, the dog, form 
an exception to most other animals in this respect. 

Id., p. 121, 

153. The distribution of heat, moisture and veg- 
etation forms the true basis for the distribution of 
animal life. Id., p. 120. 

154. A careful study of the map of the distribu- 
tion of animal life, will show that each continent 
possesses a fauna peculiar to itself. This arises 
generally from some clearly traceable peculiarity 
in the distribution of the heat and moisture, or in 
the nature of the vegetation. Id., p, 121, 

155. (1) A comparison of the different tribes and 
races of men, reveals the fact of a gradual modifi- 
cation of types, on every side of the central or 
highest race, until, by insensible degrees, the lowest 
and most degraded forms of humanity are reached. 



356 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(2) In the central race, — among the individ- 
uals of which there is greater diversity in form, 
features, temperament and mental characteristics, 
than in any other, — there are persons of pure blood 
who show, in a less degree, almost every distin- 
guishing feature of each of the lower races. 

Guyofa Phys. Geog.^ p, 113, 

(3) Since the earlier myths and legends of 
nearly all nations resemble each other, it is fair to 
infer that their remote ancestors originally dwelt 
together. The strongest proof of unity, however, 
is found in the very close resemblance in the lan- 
guages of many widely separated races. 

Houston^ s Phys. Geog., p. 126. 

156. The Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the I^e- 
gro. Id., p. 126. 

157. The Malay, or brown race; the Australian ; 
and the American or copper-colored. They are re- 
garded as modifications of .the Mongolian Race. 

Id., p. 128. 

158. The ever-varying external conditions. 

Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 11^,. 

159. The law of perfection of type, in man, forms 
an exception to that observed in the lower orders 
of creation. The human family appears in its 
highest physical perfection, not within the tropics, 
but in the temperate zone, in Western Asia, the 
geographical center of the Old World. The type 
degenerates gradually with increasing distance, in 
all directions from this geographical center; until, 
in the remotest regions of the globe, are found the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 357 

Ugliest, and most deformed specimens of the human 
family. Id,, jp, 118. 

160. The white race seems to be the normal race 
from which the others have gradually deviated. 

Id., 2?. 118. 



358 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



, QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



1. Define government. 

2. What is the necessity of government? 

3. Name and define the kinds of government. 

4. What kind of government existed in the 
American colonies prior to the Revolution? 

5. Define these different forms of government. 

6. What are laws? 

7. What is a state ? 

8. Define civil government. 

9. What is a constitution? 

10. When did the present constitution of the 
United States go into operation ? 

11. What is the introductory paragraph of the 
constitution called? 

12. Repeat the preamble. 

13. What is the object of the preamble? 

14. What were the purposes for which the con- 
stitution was adopted ? 

15. Into how many departments is the govern- 
ment of the United States divided? 

16. Define these three departments. 

17. To what does article I. of the constitution 
relate? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 359 

18. Give section 1 of article I. 

19. What advantage is there in dividing the leg- 
islative body into two branches? 

20. How often are the members of the House of 
Kepresentatives chosen ? 

21. By whom are they chosen ? 

22. Why is a comparatively short term of service 
fixed for the House of Representatives? 

23. How old must a Representative be? 

24. What other qualifications are necessary ? 

25. In what manner are representatives and di- 
rect taxes apportioned among the several States ? 

26. Repeat that part of the Apportionment clause 
which limits the number of representatives. 

27. How are the vacancies in the representation 
from any State to be filled? 

28. How are the Speaker and other ofBcers of 
the House chosen ? 

29. What important power is exercised by the 
House? 

30. What is the power of impeachment? 

31. Are impeachments tried by the House? 

32. Of how many members is the Senate com- 
posed? 

33. How are the Senators chosen? 

34. How^ do they difier in this respect from the 
representatives ? 

35. For how long are the Senators chosen? 

36. How do they difier in this respect from the 
representatives? 

37. Why is a comparatively long term of service 
fixed for the senators ? 



360 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

38. Repeat that part of the constitution which 
relates to the arrangement of senators into classes. 

39. How are vacancies in the Senate filled? 

40. If the vacancies happen during the recess of 
the Legislature of the state, hov7 shall they be 
filled? 

41. What are the qualifications of the senators? 

42. Who is constituted the presiding officer of 
the Senate? 

43. When is he entitled to vote? 

44. How are the other officers of the Senate 
chosen? 

45. Who shall preside in the Senate on the trial 
of the President of the United States? 

46. What is necessary in order to convict a per- 
son on impeachment? 

47. How is the judgment, in cases of impeach- 
ment, limited? 

48. Are those convicted on impeachment liable 
to no other punishment? 

49. In what particulars shall the legislature of 
each state regulate the election of members of 
Congress? 

50. What power may Congress exercise in the 
matter ? 

51. How often shall Congress assemble? 

52. What day is fixed for the meeting of Con- 
gress ? 

53. Who are to judge of the right of any one to 
a seat in Congress? 

54. What number of each house of Congress is 
necessary to constitute a quorum ? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 361 

55. Who determinea the rules of proceeding ia 
Congress? 

56. What means has each house for enforcing its 
rules? 

57. How is the publicity of the proceedings of 
Congress SQ^cured ? 

58. How is the responsibility of individual mem- 
bers secured? 

59. Repeat the clause which relates to revenue 
bills. 

60. After a bill has passed both Houses of Con- 
gress, what must be done with it? 

61. What is still necessary before it can become 
a law ? 

62. What must the President do if he does not 
approve it? 

63. What is the next thing to be done with it? 

64. Repeat that clause which limits the time that 
the President may retain a bill. 

65. What powers are granted to Congress ? 
6Q. What powers are denied to Congress ? 

67. What powers are denied to the States ? 

68. In whom is the executive power of the 
United States vested ? 

69. For how long a term is the President elected? 

70. What other executive officer is chosen at the 
same time and for the same period? 

71. How are electors appointed? 

72. What persons are disqualified from being ap- 
pointed electors? 

73. What is the mode of choosing the President 
and Vice-President? 



362 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

74. What number of electoral votes is necessary 
to an election ? 

75. What is to be done, in case no candidate has 
a majority of the whole number of votes? 

76. In what manner shall the votes of the House 
be taken in choosing the President? 

77. What number of states is necessary to a 
choice by the House? 

78. Repeat tliat clause in the constitution which 
defines the qualifications of the President. 

79. When does the otiice of the President de- 
volve on the Vice-President? 

80. What does the constitution say in reference 
to the compensation of the president? 

81. What are the words of the oath administered 
to the president? 

82. What are the powers and the duties of the 
president? 

83. Who are liable to impeachment? 

84. Who are meant by officers of the United 
States ? 

85. Does this include members of Congress? 

86. What officers of the United States are there 
besides civil officers? 

87. Are the officers of the army and navy liable 
to impeachment ? 

88. Who are the persons chiefly meant besides 
the president and vice president? 

89. For what offenses are these officers liable to 
impeachment? 

90. What is the penalty in case of impeachment? 

91. Where is the judicial power of the United 
States vested? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 363 

92. What are the inferior courts called? 

93. In what does treason against the United 
States consist ? 

94. What is necessary in order to convict a per- 
son of treason ? 

95. What provision is made in regard to the pun- 
ishment of treason? 

96. What has Congress declared to be the pun- 
ishment for treason against the United states? 

97. What limit is placed to the punishment of 
treason ? 

98. What is meant by an attainder of treason? 

99. What is meant by corruption of blood ? 
100. What shall the United States guarantee to 

every state in this Union ? 



364 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOV- 
ERNMENT. 



1. The act of governing; the exercise of au- 
thority; the administration of laws ; control; di- 
rection; restraint; regulation; as, civil, church, or 
family government. Webster, 

2. Governments are necessary evils. Their ne- 
cessity arises out of the selfishness and stupidity 
of mankind. 

Politics for Young Americans, Nordhoff, p. W. 

3. Governments are of difierent kinds: Despot- 
ism, where the will of one man is the law ; oligarch- 
ies, where a few make the laws for those subordi- 
nate to them; and free or popular governments, 
where the laws are made by the people, or rather 
b}^ persons they select for that purpose. 

Id., J). W, 

4. There were originally three different forms 
of government in the colonies, namely, the charter, 
the proprietary, and the royal governments. 

King's Com. on the Federal Constitution, p. S55> 

5. The charter governments were composed of 
a governor, deputy governor, and assistants elected 
by the people. In the proprietary governments, 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 365 

the power of appointing officers and making laws 
rested in the proprietors, by the advice and consent 
generally of the freemen. In the royal govern- 
ments the governor and council were appointed by 
the crown, and the people elected representatives 
to the colonial legislature. Id.^ p. 356. 

6. Laws are expressions of the controlling will, 
which become rules of action for the governed. 

Martinis Civil Government ^ p. 13. 

7. A state is a community of persons living 
within certain limits of territory, under a perma- 
nent organization, which aims to secure the preva- 
lence of justice by self imposed laws. Id.^ p. IJf,. 

8. Civil government is control by law, exercised 
by a state over its members. Id., p. 1/^. 

9. The principles or fundamental laws which 
govern a state or other organized body of men, and 
are embodied in written documents, or implied in 
the institutions and usages of the country or so- 
ciety ; organic law. Webster, 

10. In September, 1788. 

11. The preamble. 

12. ^' We, the people of the United States, in or- 
der to form a more perfect union, establish justice, 
insure domestic tranquility, provide for the com- 
mon defence, promote the general welfare, and se- 
cure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our 
posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America." 

13. The object of the preamble is to set forth the 
purposes for which the Constitution was adopted. 

14. 1st. To form a more perfect union. 
~ 2d. To establish justice. 



366 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

3d. To insure domestic tranquility. 
4th. To provide for the common defence. 
5th. To promote the general welfare. 
6th. And to secure the blessings of liberty to 
ourselves and our posterity. 

15. Into three: Legislative, executive and judi- 
cial. 

16. The legislative makes the laws, the execu- 
tive carries the laws into effect, and the judicial 
interprets the laws. 

17. To the legislative department. 

18. "All legislative powers herein granted, shall 
be vested in a Congress of the United States, which 
shall consist of a Senate and House of Representa- 
tives. 

19. The two Houses of Congress act as a check 
upon each other. 

20. Ever}^ second 3'ear. 

21. By the people of the several states. 

22. That they may come more frequently and 
more directly under the supervision of popular 
opinion. 

Harfs Exposition of the Constitution^ p. 18, 

23. No person shall be a representative, who 
shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years. 

24. He must have been seven years a citizen of 
the United States, and must, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that state in which he is chosen. 

25. According to their respective numbers. 

26. "The number of representatives shall not ex- 
ceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state 
shall have at least one representative." 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 367 

27. The execntlve of that state shall issue writs 
of election to fill such vacancies. 

28. By the House itself. 

29. The House has the sole power of impeach- 
ment 

30. It is the right which the representatives have 
to bring an accusation against high officers of gov- 
ernment, for maladministration of office. 

Hart's Exposition of the Constitution, p. ^3. 

31. Ko. They are tried by the Senate. 

32 Of two from each state, or seventy-six in all. 
38. By the legislatures of the several states. 

34. The representatives are chosen by the people 
of the states. 

35. For six years. 

36. The representatives are chosen for only two 
years. 

37. That they may serve as a check upo!i the 
sudden fluctuations of popular opinion, to which 
the other branch of the legislature is liable. 

Hart., p. '21,,. 

38. "Immediately after they .shall be assembled, 
in consequence of the first election, they shall be 
divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. 
The seats of the Senators of the iirst class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year; of 
the second class, at the expiration of the fourth 
year; and of the third class, at the expiration of 
the sixth year; so that one-third maybe chosen 
every second year." 

39. By the appointment of the legislature of the 
state in whose representation the vacancy may ex- 
ist. 



368 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

40. The executive of the state may make tem- 
porary appointments until the next meeting of the 
legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

41. (a) Must be thirty years of age; (b) must 
have been a citizen of the United States nine years ; 
(c) and must, at the time of his election, be an in- 
habitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 

42. The Vice-President of the United States. 

43. Only when the Senate is equally divided. 

44. " The Senate shall choose their other ofiicers, 
and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of 
the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the 
office of President of the United States." 

45. The Chief Justice. 

46. The concurrence of two-thirds of the mem- 
bers present. 

47. It shall not extend further than to removal 
from office, and disqualification to hold office un- 
der the United States. 

48. The party convicted shall, nevertheless, be 
liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment, according to law. 

49. The times, places and manner, of holding 
elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be 
prescribed in each state by the Legislature thereof, 

50. But the Congress may at any time, by law, 
make or alter such regulations, except as to the 
places of choosing Senators. 

51. The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
every year. 

52. On the first Monday in December, unless 
they shall by law appoint another day. 

53. Each house shall be the judge of the elec- 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 369 

tions, returns, and qualifications, of its own mem- 
bers. 

54. A majority. 

55. Each house may determine the rules of its 
proceedings. 

56. Each house has the power to punish its mem- 
bers for disorder!}^ behavior; and, with the concur- 
rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

57. By compelling each house to keep a journal 
of its proceedings, and to publish the same from 
time to time. 

58. By requiring the yeas and nays to be taken 
on any question, at the desire of one-fifth of the 
members present. 

59. "All bills for raising revenue shall originate 
in the House of Representatives; but the Senate 
may propose or concur wnth amendments, as on 
other bills." 

60. It must be presented to the president. 

61. The president must approve and sign it. 

62. He shall return it, with his objections, to that 
House in which it shall have originated, who shall 
enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. 

63. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of 
that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be 
sent, together with the objections, to the other 
House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, 
and it* approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall 
become a law. 

64. "If any bill shall not be returned by the 
president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after 

24 



370 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, un- 
less the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its 
return, in which case it shall not be a law." 
65. Congress shall have power — 

(1) To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, 
and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
common defence and general welfare of the United 
States. 

(2) To borrow money on the credit of the 
United States. 

(3) To regulate commerce with foreign na- 
tions, and among the several states, and with the 
Indian tribes. 

(4) To establish a uniform rule of naturaliza- 
tion, and uniform laws on the subject of bankrupt- 
cies, throughout the United States. 

(5) to coin money, regulate the value thereof, 
and of foreign coin, and lix the standard of weights 
and measures. 

(6) To provide for the punishment of coun- 
terfeiting the securities and current coin of the 
United States. 

(7) To establish post-ofBces and post-roads. 

(8) To promote the progress of science and 
useful arts by securing, for limited times, to authors 
and inventors the exclusive right to their respective 
writings and discoveries. 

(9) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Su- 
preme Court. 

(10) To define and punish piracies and felonies 
committed on the high seas, and offenses against 
the law of nations. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 371 

(11) To declare war, grant letters of marque 
and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures 
on land and water. 

(12) To raise and support armies. 

(13) To provide and maintain a navy. 

(14) To make rules for the government and 
reguhttion of the land and naval forces, 

(15) To provide for calling forth the militia to 
execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrec- 
tions, and repel invasions. 

(16) To provide for organizing, arming, and 
disciplining the militia, and for governing such 
part of them as may be employed in the service of 
the United States. 

(17) To exercise the exclusive legislation in all 
cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding 
ten miles square), as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the 
seat of the government of the United States, and 
to exercise like authority over all places, purchased 
by the consent of the legislature of the state in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful 
buildings. 

(18) To make all laws which shall be necessary 
and proper for carrying into execution the forego- 
ing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

66, Powers denied to the United States : 

(1) The migration or importation of such 
persons as any of the states now existing shall 
think proper to' admit, shall not be prohibited by 



372 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight; hut a tax or duty may be im- 
posed on such importation not exceeding ten dol- 
lars. 

(2) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus 
shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of re- 
bellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 

(3) '^o bill of attainder, or ex-post facto law 
shall be passed. 

(4) No capitation or other direct tax shall be 
laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumer- 
ation hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

(5) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles 
exported from any state. No preference shall be 
given by any regulation of commerce or revenue, 
to the ports of one state over those of another; nor 
shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged 
to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

(6) No money shall be drawn from the treas- 
ury, but in consequence of appropriations made by 
law; and a regular statement and account of the 
receipts and expenditures of all public money shall 
be published from time to time. 

(7) No title of nobility shall be granted by 
the United States ; and no person holding any of- 
fice of profit or trust under them shall, without the 
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, 
emolument, ofiice, or title, of any kind whatever, 
from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

67. Powers denied to the states: 

(1) No state shall enter into any treaty, alli- 
ance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and 
reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 373 

anything but gold and silver coin a tender in pay- 
ment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post 
facto law, or law impairing the obligation of con- 
tracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

(2) Wo state shall, without the consent of the 
Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or 
exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws. 

(3) ]N'o state shall, without the consent of 
Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or 
ships of war, in time of peace; enter into any 
agreement or compact with another state, or with 
a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually 
invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

68. The executive power shall be vested in a 
President of the United States. 

69. For four years. 

70. The Vice President. 

71. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as 
the legislature thereof may direct, a number of 
electors, equal to the whole number of Senators 
and Representatives, to which the state may be 
entitled in the Congress. 

72. Senators, Representatives, and all persons 
holding any office of trust or profit under the 
United States. 

73. The electors shall meet in their respective 
states, and vote b}^ ballot for President and Vice 
President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
President, and in distinct ballots the person voted 



374 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

for as Vice President ; and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all 
persons voted for as Vice President, and of the 
number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
sign, and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat 
of the government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate. The President of 
the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, 
and the votes shall then be counted. 

74. A majority of the whole number. 

75. The House of Representatives shall elect a 
president. 

76. By states; the representation from each state 
having but one vote. 

77. A majority of all the states. 

78. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or 
a citizen of the United States at the time of the 
adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the 
office of President ; neither shall any person be 
eligible to that office who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty-iive years, and been fourteen 
years a resident within the United States. 

79. In case of the removal of the president from 
office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to 
discharge the powers and duties of the said office, 
the same shall devolve on the vice president. 

80. The president shall, at stated times, receive 
for his services, a compensation, which shall neither 
be increased nor diminished during the period for 
which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that period, any other emolumont 
from the United States, or any of them. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 375 

81. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will 
faithfully execute the office of President of the 
United States, and will, to the best of my ability, 
preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of 
the United States." 

82. (1) The president shall be commander-in- 
chief of the army and navy of the United States, 
and of the militia of the several states, when called 
into the actual service of the United States ; he may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal 
officer in each of the executive departments, upon 
any subject relating to the duties of their respec- 
tive offices, and he shall have power to grant re- 
prieves and pardons for offenses against the United 
States, except in cases of impeachment. 

(2) He (the president) shall have power, by 
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to 
make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with 
the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint 
embassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, 
judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers 
of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be 
established by law; but the Congress may by law 
vest the appointment of such inferior officers as 
they think proper, in the president alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

(3) The president shall have the power to 
fill up vacancies that may happen, during the recess 
of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

(4) He shall, from time to time, give to the 



376 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Congress information of the state of the Union, 
and recommend to their consideration such meas- 
ures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he 
may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagree- 
ment between them, with respect to the time of 
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as 
he shall think proper; he shall receive embassadors 
and other public ministers; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commis- 
sion all the officers of the United States. 

83. The President, Vice President, and all civil 
officers of the United States. 

84. Officers deriving their appointments from the 
national government. 

85. No. 

86. Officers of the army and navy. 

87. They are not. 

88. Heads of departments; judges of the Su- 
preme Court, marshals, collectors, district attor- 
neys, etc. 

89. For treason, bribery, or other high crimes 
and misdemeanors. 

90. Removal from office, and disqualification to 
hold office in future. 

91. In one Supreme Court, and in such inferior 
courts as the Congress may, from time to time, or- 
dain and establish. 

92. District courts and circuit courts. 

93. Treason against the United States shall con- 
sist only in levying war against them, or in adher- 
ing to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 

94. No person shall be convicted of treason, un- 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 377 

less on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
overt act, or on confession in open court. 

95. The Congress shall have power to declare the 
punishment of treason. 

96. Death by hanging. 

97. No attainder of treason shall work corrup- 
tion of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life 
of the person attainted. 

98. Conviction of the crime of treason. 

Hart on the Constitution. 

99. One whose blood is corrupted can not inherit 
property from others, nor transmit an inheritance 
to his children ; his blood ceases to have any in- 
heritable qualities. Id. 

100. The United States shall guarantee to every 
state in this Union a republican form of govern- 
ment, and shall protect each of them against inva- 
sion ; and, on application of the legislature, or of 
the executive (when the legislature can not be con- 
vened), against domestic violence. 



378 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ft. 



QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. 



1. Into what ten periods may English literature 
be divided, with reference to English history? 

2. How were letters and learning first intro- 
duced into England? 

3 Why was the country named England? 

4. Describe the early minstrels. 

5. What was the effect of the Danish invasion 
upon tlie Anglo-Saxon language and literature? 

6. What is the oldest English poem? 

7. Of what benefit was King Alfred to the 
cause of literature? 

8. What circumstances led to the Norman in- 
vasion ? 

9. Describe the Ormulum. 

10. What is the nature of the writings of Sir 
John Mandeville? 

11. Who was "Piers Plowman ?" 

12. What great work did Wyckliffe do? 

13. Give a brief account of Chaucer and his 
writings. 

14. What efiect did the Norman conquest have 
upon literature? 



^ ENGLISH LITERATURE. 379 

15. Who was Caxtoii? Give an account of his 
literary work. 

16. Give ail outline of the life and work of Tyu- 
diile. 

17. Give a sketch of Sir Thomas Moore. 

18. What kinds of poetical composition did 
Wyatt and Surrey introduce into England? 

19. Give a brief account of the age of Elizabeth. 

20. To what department of composition did John 
and Richard Hooker contribute? 

21. Give a brief account of Lord Bacon and his 
writings. 

22. Give the points of interest in the life of Ed- 
mund Spenser. 

23. Who were the leading contemporaries of 
Spenser? 

24. What is the style of Shakespeare's writings? 
What are his best poems? 

25. What valuable contributions to literature did 
Thomas Fuller make? 

26. Give the points of special interest in the life 
and work of Jeremy Taylor. 

27. Give a brief sketch of Milton and his writ- 
ings. 

28. In what special fields of investigation were 
Locke, Newton and Boyle interested? 

29. Give an account of the life and writings of 
John Banyan. 

30. Give a sketch of John Dryden and his writ- 
ings. 

31. Give an account of the introduction of the 
newspaper. 



380 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



% 



32. Who were the principal writers of the Au- 
gustan Age ? 

33. Who were the principal writers of the Age 
of the Three Georges ? 

34. Name the leading English literary men of 
the Lake School. 

35. Name the English Poets Laureate. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 381 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON ENGLISH LIT- 
ERATURE 



1. I. Anglo-Saxon Period 450-1066. Cjedmon. 
II. Norman Transition Period. 1066-1400. 

Chaucer. 

III. Reformation Age. 1400-1558. Tyndale. 

IV. Elizabethan Age. 1558-1625. Spenser. 
V. Dramatic Age (overlapping). 1585-1645. 

Shakespeare. 

VI. The Age of the Protectorate. 1625- 
1660. Milton. 

VII. The Restoration Age. 1660-1702. Dry- 
den. 

VIII. The Age of Queen Anne. 1702-1714. 
Pope. 

IX. Age of the Three Georges. 1714-1800. 
Cowper. 

X. Nineteenth Century. 1800 — . Scott — 
Wordsworth. 

2. The Teutonic peoples had a system of writ- 
ing in characters called runes, which they claimed 
had been taught them by their god Odin, or Wo- 
dm. The Teutons had engraved their runes on 
stones and trees. Besides these written characters, 



382 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

all barbarous nations have their story-tellers, who • 
tell the traditions of the past and the deeds of men 
around them, and these stories were handed down 
till tliey were finally written down and became the 
first history or poem of a nation. 

Pope Gregory sent monks to England to teach 
Christianity. They carried a copy of the Old Tes- 
tament and other works on parchment. Thus, all 
at once, upon the English soil came the Christian 
Religion, the Hebrew Literature, and the Writ- 
ten Characters of the RoxMans — three great gifts 
to the future of our English race. 

Talks on Eng, Literature, Richardson., pp. 21-25. 

3. From the Angles, a teutonic race that settled 
along tlie shores of the North Sea, and finally be- 
came the conquerors and holders of the British 
Isles. • Id,, p. 19. 

4. The Britons had their bards, who sang to 
harps, songs of war and praises of heroes. The 
Scandinavians had a sagaman and scald ; the Eng- 
lish their scop and gleeman. The chiefs honored 
these men as princes honor poets. They had them 
at their feasts; they took them to the field of bat' 
tie, and the court of those old rulers would not 
have been complete without these, its minstrels. 

Id., pp. 22, 23. 

5. The invasions of the Danes interrupted liter- 
ary labor, and early in the eleventh century the 
Danes conquered England, and King Canute took 
the throne. Id., p. 38. 

6. England's earliest extant writing is an epic 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 383 

poem of more than six thousand lines, entitled 
"Beownlf/^ 

Shaw's New History of English and American Lit- 
erature^ p. 1^. 

7. The honored name of King Alfred stands pre- 
eminent among the writers of prose in Old Eng- 
lish. No sooner had he effected the deliverance 
of his people from their Danish enemies, than he 
eagerly set to work to lift them out of their bond- 
age of ignorance. From various quarters he in- 
vited men of learning to his court. He strove to 
secure the higher education of the clergy. In order 
to difluse knowledo^e, he had the standard writino^s 
on religion, morals, geography, and history trans- 
lated into the language of the people. He applied 
himself to a careful course of training in order to 
prepare himself for the work of a writer. His 
writings are pronounced " the purest specimens of 
Anglo-Saxon prose." Id , p. IS. 

•8. The vicinity of so remarkable a people (the 
Normans), early began to produce an effect on the 
public mind of England. Before the conquest, 
English princes received their education in Nor- 
mandy. English sees and English estates were be- 
stowed on Normans. The French of Normaiidy 
was familiarly spoken in the palace of Westmin- 
ster. The court of Rouen seems to have been to 
the court of Edward the Confessor what the court 
of Versailles, long afterwards, was to the court of 
Charles the Second. The battle of Hastino:s, and 
the events which followed it, not only placed a 
Duke of Normandy on the English throne, but gave 



384 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

up tbe whole population of England to the tyranny 
of the Norman race. 

Macaulay's Hist, of Eng., Vol. I, p. 23. 
9. The Ormidwn, written by Orm, is supposed 
to have been written in the thirteenth century. 
One of its editors describes it as ''a series of hom- 
ilies in an imperfect state, composed in metre, with- 
out rhyme; the subject of the homilies being sup- 
plied by those portions of the 'New Testament 
which were read in the daily services of the 
church." The author himself says, *'If any one 
wants to know why I have done this deed, why I 
have turned into English the Gospel's holy teach- 
ing; I have done it in order that all young Chris- 
tian folks may depend upon that only, that they, 
with their whole mind, might follow aright the 
Gospel's holy teachings in thought, in word, in deed." 

Sha7i\, p. 23. 

10. Sir John Mandeville (1300-1372), published 
his well-known volume of travels in 1356. It pro- 
fesses to be an authentic account of what the au- 
thor saw on his travels through the most distant 
countries of the East, but is, in reality, a collection 
of marvelous tales, worthy only of being classed 
with the adventures of Baron Munchausen. What- 
ever truth it may contain is mingled with so much 
falsehood, that the whole narrative is worthless. 
The book was translated from Latin into French, 
and from French into English. Id., p. Jfl, 

11. "Piers Ploughman" wrote three works, — 
"The Vision," "The Creed," and "The Complaint 
of Piers Plowman." They express the discontent 
of the Commons with the course of affairs in 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 385 

Church and State. Tradition assigns the author- 
ship to William Langlande, and the time is sup- 
posed to have been 1362 to 1399. Id., p. 43. 

12. Wyckliffe (1324-1384) was one of the earli- 
est writers who addressed the common people in 
words familiar to the hearths and homes of Eng- 
land. Bat his chief literary work was "A Trans- 
lation of the Holy Bible." Id., p. 43, 

Wyckliffe was the first eminent scholar who 
used the Encrlish tons^ue in attackino^ the ecclesi- 
astical system. He was the forerunner of the 
Reformation. He struck the first mighty blow 
against Roman Catholic supremacy in England. 

Shaw, p. 48. 

13. Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) is our first 
great poet — so incomparably great as to all that 
went before, that he is distinctively called the 
Father of English Poetry. His name would be 
found in any list meant to include the five greatest 
poets of England. Chaucer's writings show him to 
have been in sympathy with Wyckliffe and the 
Lancastrians, in their resistance to the encroach- 
ments of the Roman hierarchy. His principal 
work, '* The Canterbury Tales," is believed to have 
been w^ritten late in life. 

Hart's Eng. Literature, pp. 35-37, 

14. For more than a century after the ]N"orman 
Conquest, English literature was utterly inert. That 
event, so fatal to the native aristocracy, seemed at 
first to have swept away in common ruin the laws, 
language and arts of the English people, and to 

25 



386 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

have blotted out England from the muster-roll of 
the nations. Shaw, p. 21, 

15. Few English names of this (15th) century 
will live so long as that of William Caxton (1412- 
1491). To him England owes her early participa- 
tion in the benefits arising from the art of printing. 
His printing press was set up at Westminster, and 
its first work, the *' Game of Chesse," appeared in 
1474. He gave to the world sixty-four books, 
many of them translations from the printer's own 
pen. To other books he added prefaces of his own 
composition, so that he is fairly entitled to a place, 
though not a very high one, among English au- 
thors. Jd., p. 51. 

16. William Tyndale (1480-1536), translated the 
New Testament, and the Pentateuch and the His- 
torical Books of the Old Testament. His New 
Testament first appeared in 1525. The version 
made by Tyndale was used to a large extent by all 
subsequent Protestant translators ; it is really the 
basis of our present version. There is in our pres- 
ent version more of Tyndale than of all the other 
translators put together. After translating the 
New Testament he proceeded with a translation of 
the Old Testament, and had completed the larger 
portion of it, when death put an end to his labors. 
He also made, in 1534, a careful revision of his 
New Testament. He was finally arrested and burnt 
at the stake, in 1536. His dying exclamation was, 
"Lord, open the King of England's eyes ! " 

Hart, p. 116, 

17. Sir Thomas More (1480-1535) was, next to 
Erasmus and Cardinal Wolsey, the most conspicu- 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 387 

ous and shining character in the reign of Henry 
VIII. He was a man of wonderful versatility as 
well as force of genius, being equally distinguished 
as a statesman, a man of lively wit, a scholar, and 
a devout Christian. More wrote many works, 
mostly of a controversial kind. The only work by 
which he is now known is "The Utopia.'^ 

Id,, p. S4" 

18. Wyatt's (1503-1542) writings were princi- 
pally amatory and satirical. 

Surrey (1516-1547) is distinguished for his son- 
nets and songs, and especally by his being the first 
writer of blank verse in English. He translated 
the first and fourth books of Virgil's ^neid. 

Id., p. 68. 

19. The Elizahethan Age, or the Golden Age of 
Poetry, includes the names of more great men than 
any other age of literature. Elizabeth herself was 
finely educated, and sometimes wrote poetry. In 
this period lived Spenser, Sir Philip Sydney, Sir 
Walter Raleigh, Lord Bacon, Shakespeare. Ben 
Jonson, and many other eminent literati. 

Richardson, p. 95. 

20. John Knox (1505-1572) was a great Scottish 
Reformer. He was a Catholic priest, but renounced 
Catholicism and became an earnest advocate of 
Protestantism. 

Richard Hooker (1553-1600) was the ablest 
advocate of the church organization of England 
that had yet appeared. Id., p. 118. 

21. Francis Bacon — Baron Verulam (1561-1626), 
commonly known as Lord Bacon — was one of the 
greatest of modern philosophers. Bacon was gifted 



388 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

by nature with abilities of the highest order, and 
he had every advantage which education and high 
birth could bestow for giving his abilities develop- 
ment and exercise. After holding various high 
offices, he was, in 1620, made Viscount St. Albans. 
The same year he also published his greatest work, 
"The Novum Organum." But he fell from his 
high position by his own meanness. Though in 
the receipt of a princely revenue from the fees of 
his office and from his professional services, he 
added still further to his income by taking direct 
bribes as a judge and giving decisions expressly for 
money. He confessed his guilt, and was sentenced 
to pay a fine of £40,000, made incapable of holding 
office, and imprisoned during the pleasure of the 
king. This sentence was scarcely pronounced be- 
fore it was mitigated. He was sent to the Tower, 
but in two days was set at liberty. The tine was 
soon after remitted. Bacon's works have been 
published in seventeen volumes. He wrote chiefly 
upon science and law. No finer specimens of Eng- 
lish prose are to be found than in Bacon's Essays. 
HarVs Eng. Literature^ pp. 99-101, 
22. Edmund Spenser (1553-1599) is the next 
great name in English literature, after that of 
Chaucer. His principal work " The Fairy Queen," 
is one of the chief treasures of the language. Spen- 
ser was born in London, in humble circumstances. 
He was educated at Cambridge. In 1579 he pub- 
lished his first volume, *'The Shepherds' Calender." 
His other works are, "The Ruins of Time," ''The 
Tears of the Muses," "Virgil's Gnat," <' Mother 
Hubbard's Tale," " The Ruins of Rome," " The Fate 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 389 

of the Butterfly," ^'Dapnaida/' "Prothalamion," 
and four '^ Hymns." Id.y p. 6"^. 

23. Sir Philip Sidney, Gabriel Harvey, Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh, Thomas Sackville, William Warner, 
Samuel Daniel, Michael Drayton, Edward Fairfax, 
Giles and Phineas Fletcher, George Herbert, and 
William Drummond. Id., p. 63. 

24. Dramatic. Hamlet is undoubtedly Shake- 
speare's masterpiece; Othello is his most finished 
piece, and Twelfth Night or As You Like It, is 
the most genial. But the two parts of Henry IV., 
and the play of Henry Y. form a trilogy that re- 
veals the poet in his greatest vigor and flexibility. 

Id., p. 86. 

25. Thomas Fuller (1608-1661), the ecclesiastical 
historian of Great Britain, is about as much known 
for his wit as for his learning. His principal works 
are the following : " The Church History of Great 
Britain, from the Birth of Christ to 1648;" ^'His- 
tory of the Worthies of England;" *' The Holy 
and the Profane State;" "History of the Holy 
War;" "Good Thoughts in Bad Times;" "Good 
Thoughts in Worse Times;" "Mixed Contempla- 
tions in Better Times;" "The Unfortunate Politi- 
cian;" "David's Heinous Sin (a poem)," etc. 

Id., p. 170. 

26. Jeremy Taylor, D. D. (1613-1667), is, by 
general consent, one of the greatest glories of the 
English people. He was born and educated at 
Cambridge. In the tierce confli^s then going on, 
Taylor adhered to the Royalists and shared their 
fortunes. He held offices under Charles I., but on 
the downfall of the Royalists he lovst his position, 



390 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

and was frequently imprisoned. During the Pro- 
tectorate he kept school in Wales, and officiated 
as chaplain to the Earl of Carberry. After the 
Restoration he became a member of the Privy 
Council of Ireland, and Vice-Chancellor of the 
University of Dublin. Taylor is the Spenser of 
theological literature. It seems a pity that Taylor 
could not have been born half a century earlier, 
and formed, with Spenser and Sidney, a part of the 
retinue of the stately Elizabeth. His works of 
most importance are pleas for religious toleration. 
While in his seclusion in Wales he wrote '' Holy 
Living," " Holy Dying," " Liberty of Prophesying," 
"A Life of Christ," and the '' Golden Grove." 

Id., p. 171. 
27. John Milton, the poet, the statesman, the 
philosopher, the glory of English literature, the 
champion and the martyr of English liberty. — i/a- 
caulay. 

The old blind poet hath published a tedious 
poem on the Fall of Man. If the length be not 
considered as a merit it hath no other. — Waller. 

The first place among our English poets is due 
to Milton. — Addison. 

There is no force in his reasonings, no elo- 
quence in his style, and no taste in his composi- 
tions. — Goldsmith, 

Milton was born in London, 1608, died 1674. 
His chief poem is Paradise Lost. This great poem 
was two years in finding a publisher, and the 
amount received for the copyright was only £28. 
Milton wrote several works on divorce, and was 
also a political writer of note. He became totally 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 391 

blind in 1653. Many of his best works were writ- 
ten after he became blind. 

Harfs Lit., Shaw's Neio JEyig., and American Lit. 

28. John Locke (1632-1704), is one of the names 
always quoted in speaking of the great thinkers 
who have largely influenced the current English 
opinion on science, morals, or religion. 

Hart, p. 193. 

Sir Isaac ISTewton (1642-1727), devoted the 
greater part of his study to philosophical research. 
He also wrote some minor theological works. Id. 

Hon. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was greatly 
distinguished as an experimental philosopher of 
the school of Bacon, and as the chief founder of 
the Royal Society. Id., p. 195. 

29. John Bunyan (1628-1688) was, of all writers 
of his age, the greatest marvel. With only the 
most limited opportunities of education, he pro- 
duced a work which is one of the greatest classics, 
not merely of English literature, but of all litera- 
ture, ancient or modern. The "Iliad" itself is not 
more clearly a work for all time and all men than 
is the "Pilgrim's Progress," by John Bunyan, the 
Bedfordshire tinker. Bunyan was an illiterate 
tinker, and in early life shockingly profane. Be- 
ing brought under strong religious convictions, he 
abandoned his former way of life and became ever 
afterward a most earnest and devoted Christian. 
Bunyan wrote many works, the chief one, after 
" The Pilgrim's Progress," being his " Holy War." 

Id., p. 179. 

30. John Dryden (1631-1700) fills a larger 
space in English literature than any other writer 



392 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

between the age of Milton and that of Pope and 
Addison. Hart, 

"My conversation is slow and dull, my humor 
saturnine and unreserved. In short, I am none of 
those who brealc jests in company and make repar- 
tees." John Dryden. 

Dryden wrote dramas, satires, polemics, trans- 
lations, fables and odes. He was Poet Laureate 
from 1670 to 1688. 

31. Newspapers were preceded in antiquity "by 
the Roman Acta Diurna, which were daily, official 
written reports of public occurrences; and in mod- 
ern Europe by periodical publications in manu- 
script. 

Alexander Andrews gives the following ac- 
count of the origin of newspapers: 

"First we have the written news letter fur- 
nished to the wealthy aristocracy ; then, as the 
craving for information spread, the ballad of news 
sung or recited ; then the news pamphlet more 
prosaically arranged ; then the periodical sheet of 
news, and lastly the newspaper.'' 

The first regular series of weekly newspapers 
hitherto discovered was entitled, " The Weekly 
J^ewes from Italy, Germanic, etc.'' (1622). The 
"English Mercury, of 1588," long regarded as the 
first printed English newspaper, was proved a 
forgery in 1839, and again in 1850, by Thomas 
Watts of the British Museum. Prominently con- 
nected with most of the early weekly sheets, which 
appeared under the name of "Weekly iN'ewes," 
" Times !N"ews/' " Kewes," etc., was ISTathaniel But- 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 393 

ler, who is regarded as the father of the regular 
newspaper press. 

The first attempt at parliamentary reporting 
was made in 1641; the first advertisement was in- 
serted as early as 1648 ; and the first paper exclu- 
sively devoted to advertisements and shipping in- 
telligence appeared in 1657. The news given in 
the papers treated chiefly of foreign afi'airs. Home 
politics were scarcely discussed till after the aboli- 
tion of the Star Chamber in 1641. The press was 
for a long time subjected to many persecutions, 
and the licensing act was not abolished till after 
the accession of William and Mary. 

The first commercial newspaper, the "City 
Mercury," was published in 1675; the first literary 
paper, the " Mercurius Librarius." in 1680; the 
first sporting paper, the '• Jockeys' Intelligencer,'^ 
in 1683; and the first medical paper in 1686. The 
first daily newspaper, the "Daily Courant," was 
published in 1709. It consisted of but one page of 
two columns, and contained five paragraphs trans- 
lated from foreign journals. Am. Cyclopedia. 

32. Pope, Prior, Gay, Parnell, Addison, Steele, 
Jonathan Swift, Congreve, Vanbrugh, Farquhar, 
Collier, Bentley, De Foe, and others. 

Barfs Literature, p. 21S to p. 250. 

33. Young, Gray, Collins, Akenside, Beattie, 
Eichardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, Johnson, 
Goldsmith, Fanny Burney, Percy, Cowper, Burns. 

34. Coleridge, Wordsworth, Southey, Thomas 
Campbell, Tom Moore, Walter Scott, Lord Byron, 
Shelley, Keats. Eichardson, p. 356, 



394 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

35. Edmund Spenser, Samuel Daniel, Ben. Jon- 
son, "William Davenant, John Dr3^den, Thomas 
Shadwell, Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, Lawrence 
Eusdon, Colley Cibber,William Whitehead, Thomas 
Warton, Henry James Pye, Robert Southey, 
William Wordsworth, Alfred Tennyson. 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 395 



QUESTIONS ON AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



1. Into what periods is American literature di- 
vided ? 

2. What was the character of the literary lead- 
ers in early colonial times? 

3. What was the first work written on Ameri- 
can soil ? 

4. What was the first purely literary work 
written here? 

5. What was the first book published in Amer- 
ica? 

6. What had literature to do with the success 
of the Revolution ? 

7. From what standpoints may Benjamin Frank- 
lin be studied? 

8. What ladies wrote in the Revolutionary Pe- 
riod? 

FROM 1800 TO 1830. 

9. Who is the author of "Hail, Columbia ''? 

10. Who is the author of " The Star-Spangled 
Banner"? 

11. Who is the author of "The Old Oaken 
Bucket"? 

12. Who is the author of " The American Flag " ? 



396 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

13. "Who is the novelist of this period? 

14. Who are the naturalists of this period? 

15. Who is the lexicographer of this period? 

16. Who are the writers on political economy of 
this period ? 

17. Who are the legal and political writers of 
this period? 

18. Name some of the theological writers of this 
period. . 

From 1880 to 1850. 

19. Who was the first American novelist that 
gained a national reputation ? 

20. Give a sketch of Washington Irving, and 
name his principal Avorks. 

21. In what department of literature is Ralph 
Waldo Emerson a leader? 

22. With what department was Horace Mann 
connected? 

23. For what poem is Fitz- Green Halleek noted? 

24. Who is called the Poet Laureate of America? 

25. Who is the leading lyric poet of America? 

26. By what poem did Bryant first gain a impu- 
tation ? 

27. Who is called the Poet-Painter? 

28. Who is the most prominent humorous poet? 

29. Who is, by general consent, at the head of 
novelists? 

30. Who is the ablest living American novelist? 

31. Who is the best story writer for boys? 

32. Who are the leading American humorists? 

33. Give the names of Americans most eminent 
in literature and art. 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 397 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON AMERICAN 
LITERATURE. 



1. I. The Colonial Age. 1613-1760. 

II. The Revolutionary Period. 1760-1800. 
III. The Present Age. 1800. 
Hendrick's Ques. on Eng. and Amer. Lit., p. 4^9. 
The time since the year 1800 may be conve- 
niently divided, so far as literature is concerned, 
into three periods, the first ending in 1830, the 
second in 1850, and the last coming down to the 
present time. Hart's Manual of Amer. Lit. p. 90. 

2. Nearly all the leaders in these enterprises 
were men of edtication, graduates of the English 
universities. They came to the new world quite 
as much in defense of opinion as in quest of for- 
tune. Hart's American Literature, p. 25. 

3. The first works in English, written on Amer- 
ican soil, came from Virginia. The first was Whit- 
aker's " Good IN'ewes," published in 1613. 

Ld.,p. 26. 

4. The " Translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses," 
by George Sandys, 1621. Id., p. 26. 

5. The first book printed was the celebrated 
Bay Psalm Book, Cambridge, 1640. Id.,p. 29. 



398 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

6. The battle of the Revolution was fought 
with the pen as well as with the sword. The lead- 
ers in the fight against the mother country, had 
not only to argue their case before the tribunal of 
the world, but to educate their own countrymen 
up to the point of armed resistance, and to hold 
them there during a long and gloomy contest. In 
the accomplishment of this great and varied work, 
the political writers of the period used freely almost 
every variety of style that could be made available 
for the purpose. They made grave and formal ar- 
gument; they employed also warm and patriotic 
appeal. They roused their own side by patriotic 
ballads; they stung the enemy with squibs. The 
wit of the Revolutionary Period, thougli not per- 
haps of a very high order of literature, was yet no 
insignificant part of the moral force by which the 
war of independence was brought to a successful 
termination. After the war was over, there was 
the not less grave and difficult task of guiding the 
opinions of the nation, and of moulding the politi- 
cal elements into form and symmetry. 

Id., 20. 57, 

7. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) may be 
viewed under three aspects, — as a sage, a statesman 
and a man of science; in each aspect he stands 
among the first men of all time. Id.^ p. 58. 

8. Susanna Rowson (1761-1824) was famous in 
her day as the author of " Charlotte Temple." 

Mrs. Mercy Warren (1728-18i4) wrote satires 
on the royalists. Id., p. 92. 

9. Joseph Hopkinson, LL.D. (1770-1842), is 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 399 

known in literature by a single brief production only, 
the patriotic song of Hail, Columbia.'' Id., p. 100. 

10. Francis Scott Key (1779-1843) is, like Hop- 
kinson, indebted for literary celebrity to the com- 
position of a single patriotic song, " The Star-Span- 
gled Banner. Id. 

11. Samuel Woodworth (1785-1842), a poet of 
some note, is the author of the familiar lyric, '' The 
Old Oaken Bucket." Id., jy 101,.. 

12. Joseph Rodman Drake (1795-1820), gave 
promise of the highest excellence as a poet. His 
early death caused profound regret. He is chiefly 
known as the author of " The Culprit Fay," which 
is his largest poem, and' " The American Flag," 
which is the most popular. Id. 

13. Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810), was a 
novelist of good repute, and was the first American 
of any considerable note who made literature a pro- 
fession. 

14. Alexander Wilson and John James Audubon. 

15. iToah Webster, LL D. 

16. Matthew Carey and Albert Gallatin. 

17. James Kent and Joseph Story. 

18. Sam'l Stanhope Smith, Ashbel Green, Elipha- 
letl^ott, Nathaniel Emmons, Leonard Woods, John 
Henry Hobart, Henry Ware, Nathan Bangs. Hart. 

19. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) was the 
first American novelist that gained a national rep- 
utation. He was also the first American writer that 
gained a general recognition in Europe. Id., p. 168, 
^ 20. Washington Irving (1783-1859), the Gold- 
smith of America, was born in I^ew York. In his 
early manhood symptoms of alarming disease in- 



400 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

diicecl a voyage to Europe. He returned to the 
Island of Manhattan with a mind expanded by new 
scenes, and his natural love of travel and elegant 
literature deepened. He became a law student, 
but his chief occupation was writing magazine pa- 
pers. His principal writings are : ^' Knickerbocker 
Papers," '' Salamagundi,'' " The Wife/' '' Pride of 
the Village/* " The Broken Heart," " Legend of 
Sleepy Hollow," ^' Bracebridge Hall,'' " Tales of a 
Traveller," "Life of Columbus," "Anecdotes of an 
Enterprise Beyond the Rocky Mountains/' **Life 
of Mohammed," " Life of Washington." 
Shaw's New Hist, of Eng, and Amer. Literature, pp, 
371, 872. 

21. As an essayist and a lecturer on more famil- 
iar subjects, he is singularly attractive. 

Rart, p. 223 . 
It is, however, to a peculiar verbal facility and 
aphoristic emphasis, rather than to any construc- 
tive genius, that he owes the impression he cre- 
ates. Shaio's Literature, p. 375, 

22. Horace Mann, LL. D. (1796-1859), is uni- 
versally known by his writings and labors in the 
cause of popular education. Hart, p. 312, 

23. Marco Bozzaris, a war lyric. 

24. Longfellow is clearly our American Poet- 
Laureate — crowned by general suffrage, alike of 
the learned and the unlearned, the critic and those 
who read only for the pleasure his sweet verse 
gives them. Hart, p. 323. 

25. John Greenleaf Whittier (1808-) is our lead- 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 401 

ing lyric poet, and, with the exception perhaps of 
Bryant, is the one most thoroughly American. 

Id., p. S29, 

26. William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), hy the 
publication of his '' Thanatopsis," acquired, almost 
sixty years ago, a national reputation as a poet. 

Id., p. 333. 

27. Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872) is al- 
most equally celebrated as an artist and a poet, and 
is familiarly known as the poet-painter 

Id., p. 339. 

28. John Godfrey Saxe (1816-) has a national 
reputation as a humorous poet. Id , p. 34,0. 

29. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) stands, by 
general consent, at the head of novelists of the 
present period. J^^., p. 47^. 

30. Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe (1 812-) 
is clearly the ablest and most successful living 
American novelist since the death of Hawthorne. 

Id., p. 4,93. 

81. William T. Adams, "Oliver Optic," is the 
best writer we have of story books for boys. 

Id., p. 4,90. 

32. C. F.Browne, "Artemus Ward;" S.L. Clem- 
ens, "Mark Twain ;" C. H. Webb, "John Paul;" 
B. P. Shillaber, "Mrs. Partington;" H. W. Shaw, 
"Josh Billings ;" George H. Derby, "John Phcenix ;" 
Seba Smith, " Major Jack Downing ; " D..R. Locke, 
" Petroleum Y. Nasby ; " George W. Bagby, " Mozis 
Addums;" Charles G. Leland; Judge Longstreet. 

Id., pp. 435, 4^^. 
26 



402 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

33. Benjamin Franklin, literary, political and 
scientific writer. 

Jonathan Edwards, metaphysician. 

Koah Webster and Joseph E. Worcester, lex- 
icographers. 

Bowditch, Rittenhouse, Loomis and Davies, 
mathematicians. 

Louis Agassiz, Alexander Wilson and the Au- 
dubons, naturalists. 

Irving, novelist, historian and biographer. 

Cooper, Brown, Hawthorne and Arthur, nov- 
elists. 

Prescott, Bancroft, Motley, Headley, Sparks, 
Lossing and Hildreth, historians. 

Freneau, Bryant, Longfellow, Willis, Lowell, 
Emerson, Holmes, Whittier, Halleck, Poe and 
Dana, poets. 

Powers, Greenough, Hart, Story and Harriet 
Hosmer, sculptors. 

Copley, West, Stuart, Trumbull, Vanderlyn, 
Allston, Peale and Sully, painters. 

Bryant, Greeley, Bennett, Prentice, journal- 
ists. 

Webster, Clay, Hayne, Everett, Calhoun, Pren- 
tiss and Sumner, orators. 

Browne, Shillaber, Shaw, Clemens, Locke, hu- 
morists. 



PENMANSHIP. 403 



QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 



1. How should the writer always sit at the desk? 

2. Name the different positions. 

3. What should be the chief aim in teaching 
movercent? 

4. Kame the different kinds of movements. 

5. Name and describe the lines used in writing. 

6. Describe main slant. 

7. Describe connective slant. 

8. What is taken as the unit in measuring the 
height of letters? 

9. What is the unit of width ? 

10. What is an angular joining? 

11. What is a turn? 

12. Into what three classes are the small letters 
divided? 

13. Name the letters belonging to each class. 

14. Name the letters belonging to each class of 
capitals. 

15. Into how many groups are the small letters 
divided? 

16. Name the letters of each group. 

17. Into how many groups are capitals divided? 

18. Give the letters of each group. 

19. Name and illustrate the principles used in 
writing. 

20. Give directions for spacing. 



404 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 



1. The pupils should learn to sit easily, upright, 
and keep the shoulders square. 

DeGraff^s School- Room Guide, p. 84,, 

2. Left, front, right-oblique, right. 

if/., pp. 84, 85. 

3. To secure a free, easy movement. A free, 
easy movement produces a graceful line, while a 
stifl', cramped one produces a rough, irregular line. 

Id, ^ 

4. In regular writing we recommend only two 
movements, namely, the combined movement, and 
the whole arm movement. 

Spencerian Key, p. 35. 

5. The horizontal line on which the writing 
rests is called the base line. The horizontal line to 
which the small letters extend is called the head 
line. The horizontal line to which the semi-ex- 
tended letters reach, is called the intermediate line. 

DeGraff,p.87. 

6. A straight line standing to the right of a 
vertical, forming an angle of 52 degrees with the 
horizontal, gives the main slant. Id. 

7. Curves which connect straight lines in small 
letters are made on an angle of 30 degrees, and 
called connective slant. Id. 



PENMANSHIP. 405 

8. The unit for measuring the height of letters 
is the small letter "i,'' without the dot, both for 
small and capital letters, and is called a space. Id. 

9. The unit for measuring the width of letters 
is the distance between the two slanting straight 
lines in the small letter " u," taken horizontally, 
and is called a space. Id, 

10. An angular joining is the meeting of two 
lines in a point. Spencerian Key, p. ^1, 

11. Short curves w^hich frequently occur as the 
connecting links between the principles. Id. 

12. Short letters, semi-extended letters, and loop 
letters. DeGraff.p. 88. 

13. Short — -i, u, w, n, m, v, o, a, x, e, c, r, s. 
Semi-extended — t, d, p, q. 

Loop— h, k, 1, b, j, y, g, z, f, s. Id. 

14. Capital letters are divided into three classes: 
First Class— O, E, D, C. 

. Second class— X,W, Q, Z, V, U, Y, I, J. 
Third class— A, K, M, T, F, H, K, S, L, G, F, 
B, R. Id., pp. 88, 89. 

15. The small letters are classified in six groups, 
according to similarity of form. Spencer^ p. 37, 

16. First— i, u, w. 
Second — n, m, x, v. 
Third — o, a, e, c. 
Fourth — r, s. 
Fifth— t, d, p, q. 

Sixth— h, k, 1, b, j, y, g, f, z, &. Id., p. 38, 

17. Nine. Id, 

18. First— 0, E, B. 
Second— C. H. 
Third— X, Z, Q, W. 



406 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Fourth— V, Cr, Y. 

Fifth— A, K, M. 
Sixth— T, F. 
Seventh — I, J. 
Eighth— S, L, G, K. 

Ninth— P, B, R. Id. 

19. Principles are the constituent parts of let- 
ters. Of these there are eight, as follows : 
123 4 5 67 8 




Id., jp. 4,0. 
20. Generally, where letters are joined by a right 
or left curve, or where letters are joined from top 
to top by a horizontal, right or compound curve, 
the distance between them should be about one and 
one-fourth spaces. 

Where letters are joined by a slanting compound 
curve, the distance may be about one and one-half 
spaces, except such combinations as yi, ge, so, sa^ 
gh, to, where the distance follows the general rule 
above. Such combinations as ci, ee, co, ca should 
be one and one-fourth spaces apart, measured from 
a straight line, on the regular slant, passing through 
the dot of c to the first downward mark in the fol- 
low^ing letter. 

When c follows other letters it should be meas- 
ured to its main downward line. 

Such combinations as ui, ni, ne, io, ei, eo, im^ 
an, en, yi, ge, if, so, sa, gh and se should be meas- 
ured between downward lines. 



PENMANSHIP. 407 

In such combinations as on, oe, vo, re, wi, the 
distance between the nearest parts should be meas- 
ured. 

In OS, es and cs, the distance between main and 
downward lines should be fully one and one-half 
spaces. 

The distance between words in the same sen- 
tence should be three spaces, measured between 
downward lines. 

The distance between figures should be at least 
one-half a space; between I's a whole space. 

Between sentences of the same paragraph, the 
distance measured from the last downward mark 
of the first sentence to the nearest point of the next 
capital should be four spaces. 

Eclectic Hand-hook of Penmanship, pp. 81-83. 



408 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS ON PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 



1. What is a deliberative assembly? 

2. What is the origin of the term parliamentary 
laioP 

3. What is meant by *'the organization of a 
meeting ? " 

4. What two kinds of organization are there ? 

5. What is the usual manner of forming a tem- 
porary organization ? 

6. Of forming a permanent organization ? 

7. What are the necessary officers in an organ- 
ized body? What are the duties of each ? 

8. Is a chairman bound to vote in case of a tie? 

9. Is it customary for a chairman to participate 
in a discussion ? 

10. When should a president or secretary rise 
and when sit in the transaction of business? 

11. What should be done when the president and 
vice president are both absent? 

12. What should be done when the secretary is 
absent? 

13. Upon what does a person's rights depend? 

14. What are the leading duties and rights of 
members ? 

15. What is meant by " obtaining the floor?'* 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 409 

16. What may be done with a member who 
speaks without first obtaining the floor? 

17. If several members address the chair at the 
same time, which should be first recognized? 

18 What should a member do when called to or- 
der by a member or by the chairman ? 

19. What should a president do when the mem- 
bers will not heed his requests for order? 

20. Can a member who has obtained the floor be 
cut off from addressing the assembly by moving an 
adjournment or a privileged question? 

21. Is there any appeal from the decision of the 
chair on a point of order? 

22. How should a motion be managed? 

23. Is it necessary for the person seconding a 
motion to rise? 

24. May there be more than one motion before 
an assembly at once ? 

25. May a member speak more than once on the 
same question ? 

26. Can a member yielding the floor to allow 
some one to ask a question or to make an explana- 
tion, claim it again ? 

27. What is a "privileged question? 

28. What is the diflerence between a privileged 
question and a question of privilege? 

29. What questions are not debatable ? 

30. How and when may a motion be withdrawn ? 

31. What are the kinds of committees? How 
may they be appointed? What are their duties? 
What are their privileges? How and what should 
they report? 

32. How is a committee of the whole organized ? 



410 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

33. How does a committee of the whole differ 
from an ordinary committee? 

34. Explain a minority report? 

35. What is a quorum ? 

36. Give an order of business that will be suited 
to an ordinary debating society. 

37. Who usually opens and closes an argument? 

38. Would it be out of order to move the ac- 
ceptance of a report, and the adoption of the reso- 
lution thereto appended, separately? 

39. What is the order of precedence in privi- 
leged questions? 

40. Give a list of topics for debate. 



PAKLIAMINTARY RULES. 411 



ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS ON PARLIAMENTARY 
RULES. 



1. A deliberative assembly is one organized and 
controlled, in the main, by certain general princi- 
ples commonly known as parliamentary law. 

Kinsey's Normal Debater, p. 3. 

2. These general principles originated, in the 
■first place, in the Parliament of England, or, to go 
still farther back, in the old Roman code; but 
modifications have been introduced by our general 
constitution, also by the several states, and still 
greater ones by the practices of the people; yet the 
principal of all is essentially the same. Id. 

3. To organize a meeting is to supply it with 
the proper and necessary officers, and other means 
for carrying out the ends in view. Id., p. 4- 

4. Temporary and permanent. Id. 

5. When a number of persons have met for any 
purpose any member may rise, call for order, and 
nominate some one for chairman, or call for nomi- 
nations, and call for a vote. When a chairman is 
chosen he takes the chair and proceeds with the 
election of other officers. Id. 

6. After a meeting is temporarily organized, a res- 
olution is passed to the eflect of a permanent organi- 



412 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



zation, and the subject referred to committees. First, 
a committee with reference to the officers is ap- 
pointed, which committee should retire, select per- 
sons for the offices and report with all possible 
haste. Another committee is selected to draft a 
constitution and by-laws; this committee should 
report at its earUest convenience. Both these re- 
ports are submitted to the generaT assembly for its 
approval or condemnation. Id.^ p. 6. 

7. The following classification will show the 
usual officers and the duties of each: 

To call to order. 

To sustain or:ler. 

To exi)laiii and decide all questions of order. 

To announce all business. 

To receive all communications. 

To sometimes appoint committees. 

To state all motions. 

To put all questions to vote and give result. 

To decide a tie vote. 



President. 



To give his signature when necessary. 
Vice President. \ In absence of president to take the chair. 

To keep a record of the proceedings of the society. 

To write all letters, orders, etc., as the society may 
direct. 

To call the roll and mark the absentees. 

To call the roll and register the votes when yeas and 
nays are taken. 
Secretary. -j To read the minutes of nrevions meeting. 

To read all papers and documents. 

To notify committees of their appointment and bus- 
iness. 

To give his signature when necessary. 

To keep charge of all documents belonging to the 
society. 



Corresponding 
Secretary. 



f To conduct all correspondence with individuals or 
I societies. 

(To receive and hold all moneys due the organization. 
To disburse all moneys as the society may direct. 
To report in full for all moneys so often as society 
may ask. 

Id., p. 8. 
8. If, on any question, the members are equally 
divided, the President must give the casting or de- 
termining vote. 

McElUgoWs American Debater, p. 93. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 413 

9. It is not customary for the president to par- 
ticipate in discussions; however, if he desire, he 
may, by calling the vice-president or some other 
person to fill his place in the chair. 

Normal Debater^ p. 10, 

10. In reading, the chairman may, if he choose, 
sit; but, in stating or putting a motion, he should 
stand. 

The secretary may sit while calling the roll, 
but should stand when reading. Id,, pp. 10, 11, 

11. A president should be elected yro tempore. 

Id, 

12. One should be elected pro tempore. Id. 

13. A person's rights are dependent upon his du- 
ties, and a neglect to discharge those duties forfeits 
every claim to any prerogative. 

14. The following diagram illustrates the duties 
and rights of members : 

To obtain the floor before speaking. 
To stand when speaking, if convenient. 
To avoid speaking upon any matter until it is prop- 
erly brought before the house by a motion. " 
r\^^,^i^c. «f J To keep upon the question then pending. 
ijuues 01. i -p(, yjgj(3 the floor to calls for order. 

To abstain from all personalities in debate. 
To avoid disturbing in any way, speakers of the as- 
sembly. 
. To refrain from all words and acts of indecency. 

To offer any motion or resolution to the assembly. 
To explain or discuss that motion, or oh yr/ia/^er prop- 
erly before the meeting. 
•Di«Vi*o r>f J To call to order, if necessary. 

Kignis 01. '\ rj,^ j^qJ(J tj^g flQQj.^ vfhQVi legally obtained, till through 
speaking. 
To appeal from the decision of the chair to that of 
the assembly. 

Id,, p, 13, 

15. When a member wishes to make a motion, 
or to speak to the meeting on any matter, he 
should first "obtain the floor," as it is called, by 
rising and addressing the presiding officer by his 



414 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

title, ^' Mr. Chairman,'^ or "J[/r. Speaker ;^^ which 
officer hearing himself thus addressed, responds by 
calling the member by name, thus saying that he is 
in order, introducing him to the assembly and com- 
mending him to the attention of his fellow-mem- 
bers. In case the name of the member is not 
known, the chairman requests and the speaker 
gives him his name. Id. 

16. Any member attempting to speak without 
the response from the president may, at any time, 
be called down as being out of order. Id. 

17. If several members rise and address the chair 
at once, or nearly at once, the president should 
grant the precedence to him whose voice is first 
heard. In case the mover of some question rise 
with some others to speak, after the motion has 
been seconded and stated, it is the general practice 
to give him the first recognition. Id. 

18. When a speaker is called to order by the 
president, or some member, he should yield the 
floor at once, until the decision is rendered. 

Id., p. 15. 

19. In case of persistent disorder, it is the duty 
of the presiding officer to designate by name the 
ofiender.- After a statement of the nature of the 
offense from the president, the assembly should 
decide upon the punishment, if an}^ due to the 
transgression. American Debater, p. 173. 

If the president find that, after repeated at- 
tempts to bring about order, and after he has put 
forth his most strenuous efforts to have harmony 
and good feeling prevail, the assembly does not 
support him, he will then be justifiable in permit- 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 415 

ting disorder to reign, and his resignation will not 
be at all out of order. Normal Debater^ p. 16. 

20. When a member has obtained the floor, he 
can not be cut off from addressing the assembly 
on the question before it; nor, when speaking, can 
lie be interrupted in his speech by any other mem- 
ber rising and moving an adjournment, or any 
privileged motion. Gushing. 

21. From this decision any member may appeal 
by saying, *' I appeal from the decision of the 
chair." If any one seconds this appeal, the chair- 
man at once states the question, "Shall the decis- 
ion of the chair be sustained ?" and puts it to vote, 
unless time is desired for its consideration. 

Key to Smith's Diagrams of Par. Rules. 

22. The following diagram gives a general out- 
line of the management of a motion : 

oK+oj^n-r,,, *\^a r\r^^r, i ^Y adclressing the chair. 
Obtaining the floor. | ^^ receiving the response. 
Making the motion, verbally or in writing. 
Seconding the motion. 

Stating the motion to assembly by president. | ^^^J^idlng^. ^^ 
Remarks and discussion. 

17 +,-^rr ^,1 iv,^ ^,1^0+i^r, / ^v acclamation, or by ballot, or by 
Voting on the question. 1 • y^as fxnc\ nays. 

m L Announcing result of vote. 

Normal Debater, p. W. 

23. Were the rule strictly followed, no person 
would be permitted to second the motion without 
obtaining the floor as for any other purpose; but 
it is becoming more and more customary for the 
member or members to respond, "I second," with- 
out rising from the seat. In the majority of cases 
this is better than a too rigid observance of the 
law. Id. 

24. There may be any number of motions before 
the second ; but, as soon as any one of them is sec- 



p< 



416 THE NORMAL' QUESTION BOOK. 

Glided, it casts aside all the others, not only those 
already made, but the possibility of making any 
other, until that one is disposed of, unless there be 
a question of privilege. Id.^ p. 22, 

25. The general rule in all deliberate assemblies, 
unless it is otherwise especially provided, is that no 
member shall speak more than once to the same 
question, although the debate on that question may 
be adjourned and continued through several days; 
and although a member who desires to speak a sec- 
ond time has, in the course of the debate, changed 
his opinion. Gushing. 

However, the member may speak a second 
time in the same debate, to explain some particu- 
lar point that he advanced, or the like, but he is 
not to fall into the general question. Kinsey. 

26. As a matter o^ favor, or concession, but not as 
a matter of right, a speaker who temporarily yields 
the floor in favor of another, is generally permit- 
ted, immediately after the interruption, to resume 
his remarks. If the privilege be denied he can not 
claim it as a right. American Debater, p. 168, 

27. Privilege motions are so called because, on 
account of their importance, they take precedence 
over all other questions whatever. 

Key to Smith's Diagram of Parliamentary Rules, p. 5, 

28. A privileged question is one that takes prece- 
dence over others, while a question of privilege is one 
that involves the rights and privileges of individual 
members, or of the whole body taken collectively. 

Id. 

29. Motion to adjourn (unqualified), orders of 
the day, objection to considering a question, read- 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 



417 



ing of papers, withdrawal of motion, suspension of 
the rules, to lay on the table, the previous question. 
Smith's Diagram, of Parliamentary Rules. 

30. When a motion is moved, seconded and 
stated from the chair, it can not be withdrawn by 
the mover, but only by a vote of the assembly. 

American Debater, p. 152, 

31. The following diagram shows, at a glance, all 
the points relating to the appointment and work 
of committees : 

f Select. ) 
(Standing. J 

I 



Kind. 



Appointment. 



f Of a part. 
\ Of the whole. 



By the president. 
By motion. 
By ballot. 
By nominations. 



Duties. - 



r To consider the subject assigned, at large, or under especial 
directions. ^ ^* v 

To obtain information, when directed, upon any matter, by 
inquiry, or otherwise. . , ^, 

To digest and put into form, for the adoption of the assem- 
bly, all orders, motions, etc., which may be given them. 

To hold their sessions at the time and place appomted by 
the assembly. 

To transact their business just as a regular assembly. 

To change their line of procedure at any time, when so or- 
dered by the assembly. 

To report iheir proceedings in full to the assembly. 

To elect their own chairman, if desired. 

To select their own time and place of meetmg when not 
provided. ^ , ^ x >. * i. 

To note disorderly words and conduct, but not to take 
V. . ., anv action thereon. , . 

Privileges, -j rp^ adjourn from time to time till their work is accom- 
plished. , . J , 

To take any desired action upon the assigned work, save 
changing the subject or title. • 

To appoint sub-committees. 

Should be in writing. 

Should be made by the chairman, or some one 

appointed for the purpose. 
Should be read by the one selected. 

May be a statement of facts or opinions without 
any specified conclusion. 

May be facts or opinions concluded with a res- 
olution or resolutions 

May be resolutions merely, without any intro- 
duction. 

Normal Debater. 
27 



Report. ■ 



Manner. 



Matter. 



418 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

32. "When an assembly desires to resolve itself 
into a committee of the whole, to act upon any 
particular business, it does so by a motion made 
and put to that effect. 

Immediately after the decision for the commit- 
tee above named, the chairman of the assembly 
names some one to act as the presiding officer of 
the committee, resigns his position, and takes a 
seat among the members. If any one object to 
this appointment, a chairman may be elected by 
vote. 

The secretary of the general meeting acts as 
clerk of the committee of the whole. Id., p. 69, 

33. A committee of the whole can not adjourn 
from time to time till the business is finished ; but 
if more than one sitting is necessary, the form for 
proceeding is for some member to move that the 
committee rise, report progress, and ask leave to 
sit again; and if this motion prevails, the chair- 
man rises; the presiding officer resumes the chair 
of the assembly, and the chairman of the commit- 
tee informs him that the committee of the whole 
have, according to order, had under their consider- 
ation such a matter, and have made some progress 
therein; but, not having had time to go through 
with the same, have directed him to ask leave for the 
committee to sit again. The presiding officer then 
puts a question on giving the committee leave to 
sit again, and also on the time when the assembly 
will again resolve itself into a committee of the 
whole. If leave to sit again is not granted, the 
committee is dissolved. Gushing. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 419 

The committee of the whole can not appoint 
sub-committees to assist in the work. 

In this committee a member must be heard as 
often as he desires to speak and can obtain the 
floor. lu the committee no appeal from the decis- 
ion of the chair is allowed ; neither a vote by yeas 
and nays The motion for the previous question 
can not be made in the committee. 

Normal Debater^ p. 60. 

34. Strictly or parliamentarily speaking, there 
can be no such thing as a formal report from the 
minority, and if any member desire anything of 
the kind, he must act as an individual. However, 
it is sometimes permitted, more as an act of court- 
esy than anything else, that the minority report 
may accompany the proper one, as the opinions of 
the minority; in order to be adopted, it must be 
moved as an amendment to the report, w4ien that 
is before the meeting for a hearing. Id., p. 61. 

35. A quorum is such a number of members as 
may, by rule or statute, be required to be present 
at a meeting in order to render the transaction of 
the body legal or valid. Am. Debater, p. 102, 

36. 

f 1. The call to order. 

2. Calling the roll of members. 
g I TRead. 

S I 3. Minutes of previews meeting < Correct, 

(Adopt 

4. Miscellaneous business. 

5. Unfinished business. 

6. Report of committees. 

7. Communications. 
(Debate, 

8. Orders of the day.-( Declamations, 
(.Essays, etc. 

9. Critic's report. 

10. General and mutual criticisms. 

11. Election of oflBcers. 

12. Arranging the programme for next meeting. 

13. Adjournment. 

37. The side that affirms. 



420 



THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 



38, It is not onl}' not out of order, but, in fact, 
the way, first, to accept the report by a regular 
motion to that effect, and then adopt the resolu- 
tion, if satisfactory, by a separate vote. 

Am. Debater, p. 160. 

39. The annexed diagram shows the order in 
which privileged questions have precedence: 



Privileged 
proper. 



{i 



Subsidiary. 



Motion for adjournment. 

2. Motions as to privileges of members. 

3. Motions for orders of the day. 

4. Motion to lay on the table 



C Motion for previous question. 

Motion to postpone to a cer- 
< tain day. 

Motion to commit. 
1 Motion to amend. 



Motion to postpone indefinitely, 



a. Prev, qu. and 

Postpone. 

Commit. 

Amend. 

b. Postpone and 
Previous qu. 
Commit. 
Amend. 

c. Commit and 
Previous qu. 
Postpone. 
Amend. 

d. Amend and 
Previous qu. 
Postpone. 
Commit. 



f Motions concerning questions of order. 
1 Motion for reading of papers. 
Incidental. -1 Motion for the withdrawal of a motion. 
I Motion for suspension of rules, 
t Motion to amend an amendment. 

Resolved : 

40. (1) That the slanderer is a more pernicious 
character than the flatterer. 

(2) That national wealth is incompatible with 
national virtue. 

(3) That city life is preferable to country life. 

(4) That we can not reasonably indulge the 
hope of universal peace. 

(5) That party spirit is productive of more 
good than evil. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 421 

(6) That mankind suffer more from imagin- 
ary evils than from real evils. 

(7) That a lie is sometimes justifiable. 

(8) That it is more harmful to be too credu- 
lous than to be too suspicious. 

(9) That the miser is more injurious to soci- 
ety than the spendthrift. 

(10) That theaters are more beneficial than 
injurious. 

(11) That fictitious writings are more injuri- 
ous than beneficial. 

(12) That phrenology is entitled to rank as a 
true science. 

(13) That the mental faculties of males are 
not superior to those of females. 

(14) That banks are more beneficial than in- 
jurious to a community. 

(15) That the execution of Major Andre was 
justifiable. 

(16) That the virtues of the Puritans are gen- 
erally over-estimated. 

(17) That conscience is always a correct moral 
guide. 

(18) That inventions improve the condition of 
the laboring classes. 

(19) That savage nations possess a right to 
the soil. 

(20) That men of action have been of more 
benefit to the world than men of thought have. 

(21) That there ought to be a property quali- 
fication for suffrage. 

(22) That a monarchy is the strongest and 
most stable form of government. 



422 THE NORMAL QUESTION BOOK. 

(23) That a man is justifiable in obeying a law- 
of his country which he believes to be morally > 
wrong. 

(24) That teachers exercise a greater influence 
than parents in forming the character of the young. 

(25) That a lawyer is justifiable in defending 
a bad man. 

(26) That the pulpit afiTords a better field for 
eloquence than the bar. 

(27) That many enemies are a higher proof of 
merit than many friends. 

(28) That very large cities are an injury to a 
country. 

(29) That the practice of granting special reduc- 
tions from school expenses to the children of minis- 
ters is not only an unjust but a pernicious system. 

(30) That inebriates have as good a claim upon 
society for aid as the insane or poverty stricken. 

(31) That parents are responsible for the phys- 
ical, mental, and moral condition of their ofispring. 

(32) That a union of all churches would pro- 
mote the true interests of Christianity. 

(33) That a compulsory s^^stem of education is 
incompatible with a truly republican form of gov- 
ernment. 

(34) That the wages of laboring persons should 
be fixed by law. 

(35) That geology strengthens our faith in the 
Bible. 

(36) That civilization progresses faster than 
the churches do. 

(37) That public opinion be regarded as the 
standard of right. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 423 

(38) That politics affords better opportunities 
for personal advancement than literature. 

(39) That the President of the United States 
should be elected for six years and made ineligible 
to a second term. 

(40) That the doctrine of endless punishment 
is taught in the Bible. 

(41) That the United States, as a nation, owes 
more to England than to France. 

(42) That parents do injustice to their children 
by laboring to leave them a fortune. 

(43) That the veto power of the President of 
the United States should be repealed. 

(44) That a student should direct his studies 
with reference to a particular profession. 

(45) That the immigration of foreigners to this 
country be restricted. 

(46) That there is more pleasure in pursuit 
than in possession. 

(47) That excessive prosperity is more danger- 
ous than excessive adversity. 

(48) That women be granted the right of suf- 
frage throughout the nation. 

(49) That the Indians have been wrongly 
treated by the U. S. Government. 

(50) That lynch law is sometimes justifiable. 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX. 427 



RULES 

TO BE OBSERVED AT EXAMINATIONS. 



CONTRIBUTED BY Q. DALLAS LEND. 



1. Of course the teacher should always keep his person as neat 
and clean as possible, and dress, not foppishly, not necessarily in 
costly clothes, but neatly, plainly and as well as his circumstances 
will justify. There are times when the teacher, like other persons, 
may become careless of dress and appearance, but that time should 
not be when he goes to Examination. Horace Greeley was care- 
less in dress and Henry Clay Dean is as filthy as a man can well 
be, but we should copy the good points and not the faults of great 
men. A generous use of soap and water and attention to the " real 
estate " which is apt to accumulate under the finger nails are 
points worthy of the teacher's notice. "We were not all born with 
the brain of a Greeley, and therefore need other means to aid us 
through the world. 

2. Be on hand early. Better too early than too late. Prompt- 
ness is one of the unfailing signs of a good teacher. Some per- 
sons are always late, late to rise in the morning, late to bed at 
night, late to school, late to church and Sabbath-school, and 
would be late at their own funerals if they were not carried 
against their will. The teacher should not belong to this class. 
Show by your promptness at Examinations what you will prob- 
ably be at your school. Learn a lesson from the man who missed 
the morning train. 

3. Keep cool. If you get excited you can not tell half you 
know. Never think of the outcome of your work, but think only 
ot what you are to do at the present moment, knowing that the 
outcome will depend entirely upon how well you perform each 
step. Do the best you can, and do not worry about the rest. Ex. 



428 APPENDIX. -^ 

citement will spoil many an answer, and you will say many things 
you do not believe and would not say in calmer moments. Your 
memory will forsake you, and you will not be able to recall the 
name of your grandmother if you are scared. 

4. Obey strictly the rules of the Examination. If you are seen 
to whisper to another or violate any of the rules laid down for 
you, it will be taken as evidence that you are trying to practice 
fraud, though your intentions may be far from any such thing. 
Above all things do not be tempted to use any unfair means, what- 
ever. Your work is expected to show honestly what you are capa- 
ble of doing, and nothing more. Do not give the Examiner any 
ground for suspicion in this respect. 

5. Write legibly. No one cares about puzzling his brains and 
wasting his time over hieroglyphics that look like antediluvian 
bird tracks, and when deciphered possess no ethnological interest 
whatever. It was no credit to Horace Greeley that there was but 
one man in the United States who could read his manuscript. 
One should cultivate the power of writing rapidly, yet plain. 

6. Be very careful about the use of capital letters, spelling and 
punctuation. A great many of the errors in this respect are made 
through carelessness, slips of the pen, which may be avoided. 
When you have finished a subject, examine your work carefully 
and you will be very apt to find some errors. 

7. Be careful about the neatness of your manuscript. Blots and 
finger marks do not speak well for any one. 

8. Confine your mind as closely as possible to your work. Do 
not let it wander off upon other subjects. This is one of the qual- 
ities of genius, to be able to concentrate the mind upon one point 
until it is elaborated. Yet do not present the appearance of being 
puzzled or weary. Sit still and work calmly and quietly, as 
though you knew perfectly what you were about. Do not be 
caught twirling your hair with your fingers, drumming on the 
table, or with your head resting on your hand. 

9. If you are allotted a certain time on each branch, occupy 
all the time given you. If you get through before the time is up, 
review your work critically, making such corrections and addi- 
tions as you may find necessary. There is much to be gained by 
a critical study of your own productions. 

10. Do not guess at the answer of a question. " Guess work is 
as good as any when it hits," is the saying, but it rarely ever hits, 
and you would better leave the paper blank than return it filled 



APPENDIX. 429 

with guesses, even though some of them may hit the mark. It is 
a bad habit to get into, that of guessing at things. 

11. Write out as much as possible of your work. If you can 
tell what you know clearly and briefly, in writing, it is a mark of 
ability. But do not be verbose. Tell what you have to tell in as 
few words as consistent with clearness. Be pointed in all answers 
to questions. Avoid ambiguity of expression. Use short sen- 
tences. Write upon the question before you and upon nothing else. 

12. As far as possible, write the answer to each question on a sep- 
arate slip of paper, so that you can arrange the answers in order 
when you have finished. If your paper is in large sheets better tear 
in smaller slips. When you have arranged them in order, number 
the pages and fasten them together at the top. Write upon one 
side of the paper only. 

13. On receiving your paper of questions, read it over carefully. 
Take the easiest question first and write the answer, then the next 
easiest, leaving the most difficult until the last. The hardest may 
come first on the paper, and the candidate spend the whole of his 
time puzzling over it, or until he gets nervous and frightened, 
when he will not be able to answer the others, although they may 
all be easy. 

14. In exercises in Grammar, write out the parsing or analysis 
in full, abbreviating terms only. For example, in the sentence 
" Mary milks the cow," parse cow thus : Cow, n., com., 3rd, sing., 
fem., obj., object of v. milks. R,, A noun or pronoun, etc. 

In Arithmetic, write out the analysis of examples clearly, giv- 
ing your full work on the same paper. You will be judged not 
so much by the correctness of your final result as you will by 
the process you used to obtain it. If your analysis be correct, a 
mistake in the figures afiecting the final result will not be of so 
much consequence. 

15. Do not study too much the week previous to the Examina- 
tion. If you tax your mind too much, you will not have the clear- 
ness of perception and mental power you would otherwise have. 
Especially do not sit up late the night before to study. Go to bed 
early, and think as little as possible about the work of the morrow. 

16. Eat a light supper the night before, and your sleep will be 
sounder and you will have fewer dreams, and consequently you 
will rise more refreshed and better able to cope with intellectual 
problems. Eat lightly at breakfast and dinner on Examination 
day. It would be well to observe this rule through life. 



430 APPENDIX, 



HINTS 

ON THE PKEPAKATION OF MANUSCKIPTS. 



CONTRIBUTED BY G. DALLAS LIND. 



There are comparatively few persons who know how to write a 
letter, and a still less number who know how to write an article for 
the press. Postmasters are aware of the fact that few know how 
to address a letter properly, and editors and publishers are pain- 
fully aware that few know how to prepare a manuscript for pub- 
lication. It is humiliating, but true, th^ a large proportion of 
our teachers are remarkably deficient in such knowledge. It .is 
something strange, for the means of instruction are not wanting. 
Perhaps it is because there are few text-books which give the re- 
quired information in a tangible and connected form. All gram- 
mars give the rules for capital letters. Spelling is taught from 
infancy up. Rules for punctuation are given in grammars. Yet 
in these three points do all most err. Works on rhetoric give the 
necessary information in regard to arrangement, style, etc., but the 
ordinary teacher does not always make use of such a text-book. 
Perhaps the greatest reason for this ignorance, is the lack of a 
feeling of the importance which should be attached to the subject. 
Too many scarcely ever devote a moment's thought to the matter. 
They write their letters and never read them over to see how they 
look. The teacher should make it a point in common schools and 
primary schools, generally to teach the use of the period and cap- 
ital letters. This much can be taught to very young children. 
As they grow older and are able to wield the pen with some de- 
gree of facility, they can learn, and pains should be taken to teach 
them, to properly address a letter, fold, address and sign the name. 

Frequent exercises should be given in writing sentences and 
words, until they become as familiar with the appearance of words 



APPENDIX. 431 

and sentences in manuscript as they are with the alphabet. Were 
teachers more interested in this branch of learning, there would 
be less ignorance among the masses in this respect. 

We append a few rules, which, if followed, will be of benefit to 
the tyro in this branch : 

1. In writing any kind of a manuscript which you expect other 
eyes to read, whether a letter of friendship or business, an article 
for the press, or any matter you wish to preserve, use a pen and 
black ink and white or light-colored paper. It is a kind of insult 
to write to a person with a pencil, and most articles sent to the 
press so written, go to the waste basket. 

2. Learn to write in straight lines without ruling. All paper 
would be better if made without being ruled. The eye should be 
trained to guide the hand straight across the page without the aid 
of ruled lines. They only mar the beauty of a written page. The 
custom of writing on ruled paper has spoiled most persons, so that 
when they come to address an envelope where there are no ruled 
lines, they are sure to go crooked. 

3. Of course you should spell every word correctly. It is best 
for beginners to have a dictionary by their side when writing, and 
every word about which there is a doubt, should be looked up. It 
should be made an unpardonable sin to misspell words in compo- 
sition, when there are so many dictionaries in the land. Study 
the rules for the use of capital letters. They are very simple, and 
no one who pretends to any learning, or to teach, should be ignor- 
ant of them. When you have written a sentence read it over and 
see that you have made no slips of the pen. These are very com- 
mon, such as omitting one of the final letters of a word or adding 
a letter to a word, omitting one of the letters when they are doub- 
led, etc. Not only read over each sentence as you write it, but 
read the composition over one or more times when you are through. 
It is a good habit, one we have been accustomM to for a long 
time, to read over every paragraph, as soon as written, then every 
page or a number of paragraphs together. You are sure to find 
some errors in this way, not only slips of the pen, but errors in 
spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, 'etc. Get into the 
habit of criticising your own work. 

4. In regard to punctuation, little need be said. It is easy to 
learn the use of the principal point, the period. Never use long 
sentences. Short sentences are easily managed; long ones are not. 
There is scarcely any use for the semicolon and colon. The use 



432 APPENDIX. 

of the comma is somewhat arbitrary. The most common uses, 
however, should not be neglected. Between the terms of a closely- 
related series, or wherever the connective is omitted, or in general* 
wherever any word is omitted, there should be a comma. Terms 
which are contrasted should be separated by a comma, also words 
used independently should be set oflf by commas. The uses of the 
exclamation and interrogation points are sufficiently obvious. 

Never divide a syllable at the end of the line, and place a hyphen 
after a syllable at the end of the line when the remainder of the 
word is carried to the next line. For the use of the hyphen in 
compound words, you must go to the dictionary. Underscore 
every word you wish printed in italics, with two lines if in small 
capitals, three lines if in large capitals. 

5. In commencing a manuscript, begin the first line an inch or 
more from the margin of the paper. Every other line in the same 
paragraph should commence nearer the margin of the paper and 
should be kept as nearly even as possible. 

You can use your own judgment about paragraphing. You 
may put more than one subject in the same paragraph, but it is 
not best to make a new paragraph where the sense is closely con- 
nected. 

6. It is not a good idea to write and then copy, except for very 
young beginners. It is best to form a habit at once of writing 
correctly, and of so analyzing and arranging your subject in the 
mind that you may write it but once. You are almost as apt to 
make mistakes in copying, a(td the time is lost. If the composi- 
tion is to be an essay, or any other species of writing, except an 
ordinary letter it is well to make an outline first, a kind of skele- 
ton, which you can elaborate and clothe at your will. 

7. If you have made a mistake in spelling, correct, when possi- 
ble, without rewriting the word. If it is a letter or letters omit- 
ted supply them in the line above, using a caret to show where 
they should be inserted. If a letter is not needed strike it out by 
drawing a slanting line through it. If the word can not be cor- 
rected in this way, or if the wrong word is used, draw your pen 
through it horizontally and rewrite it in the space above, or after 
the word if the mistake is discovered in time. 

8. If writing for publication, write on one side of the paper 
only. It is best to use small half sheets about the size of commer- 
cial note paper. Observe rules 5 and 7 of "Rules to be observed 
at Examinations" (p. 428). Be especially particular to write 



APPENDIX. 433 

proper nameS legibly. The proof reader has no means of finding 
out whether you mean " Mr. Baker," " Mr. Barker," or *'• Mr. Bun- 
ker." He may guess from the connection what other words, badly 
written, are, but proper names he can tell nothing about. Always 
send your own name with the MS., not necessarily for publication, 
but the editor must know who is responsible for the composition. 

9. In writing a business letter be brief and pointed, yet use 
words enough to make your meaning plain. Come at once to the 
point without any preliminary remarks. If an order for goods, 
be careful to make figures plain, and always give your full name, 
postoffice, county and state, and number of house and street, if in a 
city. Observe the same rule in addressing the letter. It is best, 
generally, where sums of money are mentioned, to write the 
amount in words and figures both, enclosing the figures in a pa- 
renthesis. 

10. As a general rule in writing, use common words and such 
as convey your meaning best. If you have a natural talent for 
word painting and can use flowery and ornate language, remem- 
ber that it is all out of place in any kind of business correspond- 
ence. If you wish to let your Pegasus fly, take the opportunity to 
do so, when you write to some indulgent friend or write a love- 
letter. The more Anglo-Saxon terms you use the better. Avoid 
Latin and French phrases as much as possible. In writing an 
essay upon any subject, arrange your matter in the form of an out- 
line, as suggested in rule 6, saying all you wish to under each 
head before commencing another. In letter writing, however, you 
are at liberty to say whatever comes first to your mind. A letter 
of friendship may be something as you would talk to your corre- 
spondent if he were present. 

11. To fold a sheet to go into an envelope you must be guided, of 
course, by the size of your sheet and envelope ; but, for example, 
take the ordinary commercial note paper and the common busi- 
ness envelope, and you will fold it thus : Turn the bottom of the 
sheet up one-third of the way, then turn the top third down over 
the bottom and middle thirds, thus making three folds, and you 
will find it not only conveniently fit the envelope, but come ex- 
actly to the hand of the opener of the letter. 

12. In addressing an envelope, never get above the median line, 
commenqing the name near enough the left margin to get all the 
name and title on the same line. Never commit the unpardonable 

28 



4M APPENDIX. 

offense of getting a person's name or name and title#on different 
iines. 

Your envelope when directed should look something like the 
following : 



Mr. Johh Smith, 

dakville, 

Hendricks Co. IND. 



APPENDIX. 436 



PROGRAMME. 



CONTRIBUTED BY F. P. ADAMS. 



Every man, in whatever line of business, should work by a 
programme. In consideration of the importance of the teacher's 
work and the vast amount to be done in so short a time, the neces- 
sity of closely following a programme can not be overestimated. 
The teacher should write in a conspicuous place a programme for 
the whole school, both for recitations and study. The same pro- 
gramme will not answer for any two schools. The following, 
though evidently not perfect, is intended to be suggestive : 

The school can be separated into four grades on the subject of 
Arithmetic. The abcdarians may be called the counting class or 
D Grade ; the class in addition will constitute the C Grade ; the 
class in division, the B Grade ; and the class in fractions, the A 
Grade. 

We give on the next page a Daily Programme of Recitations 
and Studies. 

EXPLANATIONS. 

1. The recitations are indicated by italic type. 

2. The time of commencing the recitations is given in the first 
column. 

3. It is considered that the History classes can recite at the 
same time ; also the two Geography classes at the same time. 

4. It is presumed that the History and Physiology lessons can 
be prepared out of school. The teacher is measurably a failure 
if his pupils do not carry their books home with them and study 
them at night. 

5. It is thought best to have pupils study a lesson immediately 
after recitation, rather than just before. The full benefit will thus 
be derived from the preliminary drills which are given by every 
successful teacher. 



436 



APPENDIX, 







^ 












rf^rf^cococoMto to ^?^o^?^:'tr' h? h'rrrTPP ?? P5???.^?? 


00 CC 


3 
5' 




isi^^s^s^ fe ^SJlg^S 8 gsi^ss;^ S^ 8S^S^& 


£5S 










H 






— 


g 









H 







3 












:5^gg5^ss§ 5; sssig^ § ^^^^^ G stss^B^ 


to N> 


p 


p 




Geog 
Geog 
Geog 
Spelli 
Phys 
Dism 




Geogi 
Gram 
Gram 
Gram 




Gram 
Gram 
Read 
Read 
Readi 




Id. an. p. 2 






£^5-5S^S 






33Ba^ 
P P P s. • 




mar. 
mar 
ng. 
ng- 
nq. 




rnetic 
meti 
meti 
meti 
meti 















9 9 P 9 ' 




§.{> 
















C5 


















K 


















li^ 






















0.g^kJ^W^ 




ww^S^^ 




(i> CD ffc ft r" 




■^ >-J •-! -* "T 




illES.! 




riti 
oqi 
og 
sto 
sto 




P p p P 




S3S^?p- 


> 




mg. 
ing. 

issed 




^^11^ 




PPssB 

P- fa p ;c .-^ 




meti 
netic 
meti 
mar 
mar. 









^ 




*< 3 S S 




9- 9 


% 












^-f^ 

















^g:2- 






?^» 






i 






qq- qq 


1 








m^^ 


^^^^^ 


fD C (S rs, ft 


Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

Reading. 

Reading. 




elling. 
elling. 
scellatieoi 
smissed. 




riting. 

elling. 

ography. 

ading. 

ading. 




ading. 
ading and S 
ography. 
ography. 
ography. 







S 












w 


p 


^ 








1, 






^ 




.^ 








1 






N 




p 




g g.o 






IS- 




S-gt^Sp 




g-alg-s- 




g-a^ls 


w 




^? 




a, 
1 




s. 
s. 

ng and Spelling. 
s. 






? 


1° 



APPENDIX. 437 



OUTLINE OF PERCENTAGE. 



CONTRIBUTED BY LINA HINKS. 



[The following outline is complete and sufficiently clear, we 
think, to be understood, if carefully studied.] 

11 Definition. That division of Arithmetic in which one hundred 

is taken as the basis of computation. 
2^ General rule. 

I. " Determine from the conditions of the problem that quan- 
tity which 100 per cent, will best represent." 
II. " Reason from many to one and from one to many, as the na- 
ture of the question may require." 
3^ Terms employed. 
12 Per cent. 

13 Definition : a term derived from the Latin words per 

centum, signifying by the hundred. 
2^ Symbol=%. 
2^ Base. 

13 Definition : that quantity on which percentage is com- 
puted. 
2' Symbol=B. 
32 Rate. 
13 Definition: that quantity which expresses the number 

of hundredths to be considered. 
23 Symbol=R. 
42 Percentage. 
13 Definition : that part of the base which is indicated by 

the per cent. 
2' Symbol=P. 
5' Sum, or amount. 

13 Definition : the base plus the percentage. 
2* Symbol=S. or Am't. 



438 APPENDIX. 

6' Difference. 
1^ Definition : the base minus the percentage. 
23 Symbol=D. 
4* Cases. 
V Case I. 
1^ Quantities given. 
1* Base. 
2* Kate. 
2' Quantity required : Percentage. 
33 Formula: P.=B.XK. 
43 Example : (Prob. 1, p. 231, French). 
1* Statement : Find 20% of 960 bu. 
2* Solution: 

Let 100 ^c =960 bu. 
Then l^^^YTiT of 960 bu.=9.6 bu. 
20^=20 times 9.6 bu.,=192 bu. 
3* Conclusion : .'. 20% of 960 bu. is 192 bu. 
22 Case II. 

1^ Quantities given. 
1* Base. 
2* Percentage. 
2^ Quantity required : Rate. 
33 Formula: R=P.--lfc of B. 
43 Example: (Prob. 11, p. 232, French). 
1* Statement : 17 is what per cent, of 51 ? 
2* Solution: 

Let 51=100fo. 

Then 1=-^ of 100/,^V-f f,. 
17=^17 times ^f.^SS^^cf,, 
3* Conclusion : .'. 17 is SSjj<^o of 51. 
32 Case III. 

1^ Quantities given. 
1* Rate. 
2* Percentage. 
2' Quantity required : Base. 
33 Formula: B.=P.-j-R. 
43 Example : (Prob. 18, p. 283, French). 

1* Statement: 465 mi. are 15^^ of how many mi.? 
2* Solution : 

Let 100%=the req. num. of mi. 



APPENDIX. 439 

Since 15^=465 mi., l^=-jV ^^ "^^^ mi.,=31 mi., aud 
100^=100 times 31 mi.,=3100 mi. 
3* Conclusion: .'.465 mi. are 15^ of 3100 miles. 
42 Case IV. 

1^ Quantities given. 
1* Base. 
2* Rate. 
2' Quantity required : Am't or diff. 
3^ Formulae. 

1* When the amount is required : Am't=B.X(l+R-)' 
2* When the difference is required: Diflr.=B.X<l— K-)- 
43 Examples: (Prob. 25, p. 234, French). 
1* When the amount is required. 

1^ Statement : Given, the B,=125, R=25%, to find the 

amount. 
2^ Solution : 

1« Preliminary work : 100^+25%=125^=Am't. 
2® Solution proper : 
1 Let 100fc=125. 

i l%=YJir of 125=1.25. 

f 125%=125 times 1.25=137.5. 

' 3^ Conclusion : .*. 137.5 is the amount of 125 plus 25%. 

2* When the difference is required. 

P Statement: Given, the B.=125, R.=259^,io find the 
; difference. 

2^ Solution. 

P Preliminary work: 1009^—25^=75%. 
2^ Solution proper. 
Let 100%= 125. 

Then 1%=yFo" of 125=1.25; 75% =75 times 
1.25=94.75. 
3^ Conclusion : .*. 94.75 Is the difference of 125, and 25 
per cent. 
52 Case V. 
1^ Quantities, 
1* Rate. 

2* Amount or difference. 
2^ Quantity required : Base. 
3^ Formulae. 

1* When the amount is given. 
B.=A.-r-{l+R). 



440 APPENDIX. 

2* When the difference is given : B.=D.-4-(l — R,). 
43 Examples : (Prob. 33, p. 235, French). 
1* When the amount is given. 
1* Statement : 267.5 is 7 per cent, more than what nuiU' 

ber? 
2^ Solution: 

Let 100%=the required number. 
100% +7 9^0= 107^0. 
Since 107^=267.5, 

l9^o=T0T of 267.5=2.5; 
100%=100 times 2.5,=250. 
3^ Conclusion: .*. 267.5 is 7 9^ more that 250. 
2* When the difference is given. 

1^ Statement: 267.5 is 7% less than what number? 
2^ Solution : 

Let 100%=the required number. 
1009^,-79^,=93%. 
Since 93^^0=267.5, 
'i-%=-^ of 267.5=2.865+ ; 
100^=100 times 2.865,+=286.5+. 
3^ Conclusion : .-. 267.5 is 7% less than 286.7. 
5^ Applications. 
P Insurance. 

2^ Commission and brokerage. 
32 Profit and loss. 
4» Stocks. 

52 Taxes and duties. 
G!^ Interest. 
72 Discount. 

8^ Government securities. 
92 Banking. 
lO'^ Exchange. 
11^ Equation of payments. 



APPENDIX. 



44i 



CARTOGRAPHY. 



CONTRIBUTED BY DORA LIEUELLEN. 



Map Drawing. 
1^ Materials : 
1^ Paper. 
13 Flat-cap. 
2^ Brown. 
2^ Eulers: 

13 Straight— a scale of twelve or fourteen inches. 
23 Flexible— a piece of rattan or strip of zinc will answer. 
32 Lead-pencil— Faber No. 3, with an eraser. 
42 India-ink. Prepare it by dropping four or five drops of 
rain-water on a smooth piece of glass, then holding 
the stick of ink between the fingers, rub the glass un- 
til the water is black. This will be as much as any 
one will use in two hours. 
2^ Rules: 

12 Determine the scale. 

13 The map should never be drawn the same size of the one 

in the book. 
23 One and a half times this is a convenient size, if flat-cap 
be used. 
2^ The border-lines : 

13 The inne)' lines should be drawn first. 

1* Determine the exact length of the north and east lines 

on the map. 
2* Make due allowance for the increased or decreased size. 
3* Draw the rectangle and ascertain the latitude and 
longitude of its angles. 
2' The outer border-line. 

1* Should not be drawn until the map is complete. 
2* Should be heavier than other lines. 



442 APPENDIX. 

3^ The center line : 

P In all well constructed maps there is a straight line pass- 
ing from north to south through the center. This is the 
center meridian, and should be drawn and numbered 
accordingly. 
42 Parallels : 

1^ By careful measurement determine the points at which 
each cuts the inner border lines and the center merid- 
ian. 
2^ Using the flexible ruler, draw a line through these points. 
3^ Number the parallels at their eastern extremities. 
5- Meridians : 

1^ Select the parallel nearest the center of the map. 
2^ Determine the points at which the meridians east of the 
center cut the inner border-lines and this parallel ; 
measure the same distances upon these lines west of 
the center-line. 
3' Through these points draw the meridians. These should 
be numbered at their northern extremities. 
62 Outline: 

1^ Establish the key-points in the rectangles formed by the 
crossings of the parallels and meridians. 
1* Begin at the north-west corner of the map, determine 
the latitude and longitude of a town, cape, mouth of 
of a river, or some other important locality, and 
place it in the corresponding position on the new map. 
2* Locate a number of these points at convenient inter- 
vals ; if the coast is very irregular, many ; if com- 
paratively free from indentations, /ew. 
3* Carefully observing the model, unite these with a zig- 
zag line, continuing in this manner until the entire 
outline is completed. 
72 Islands: 

1^ These may be drawn in the same manner as the conti- 
nents. 
2' As the physical and political features are added to the 

continent, so should they be to the islands. 
3^ The outlines of the natural divisions and reliefs should 
be retraced in ink. 
8' Mountains: 



APPENDIX. 443 

1' There are many pretty ways to represent them. Care 
should be taken to leave no one in doubt concerning 
the importance of the range or peak, as it may be. 
1* Single rows of widely scattered " fine divergent " lines 

represent hMb. 
2* Double rows, mountain ranges, several of these systems. 
3* Several heavy strokes, shaded with lighter ones, peaks. 
9^ Deserts : 

1^ Determine the area covered, then dot with a pen. 
2^ The oasis should not be colored. 
10^ Lakes: 

1^ Determine their position and draw their outline. 
2^ The coast line shaded with several lines adds much to 
the effect. 
IP Elvers: 
1^ Determine the most important systems. 
2' Observe through what parts of the rectangles they wend 

their way. 
3* Draw the important branches, noticing that each widens 
at its mouth, and the width of the main river is in- 
creased by the blending of their waters. 
12^ Political divisions : 

1^ Trace the boundaries in a dotted line in lead or ink. 
2^ Kepresent the capital by a circle within a circle, the 
principal cities by a single small circle. Other plans 
will suggest themselves. 
132 Key: 

1^ No names should be placed upon the map. If the mem- 
ory needs an aid this is a good one. 
1* Prepare a slip of paper — one-fourth of a sheet of fools- 
cap folded lengthwise. 
2* Number the locality in lead, on the map, place a cor- 
responding number on the Key, after it the name 
neatly written. 
3* After completing it in this manner, it may be fastened 
to the left corner at the bottom of the map. 
31 Order: 
12 India 

2* South America. 
32 Australia. 
42 Africa. 
52 Asia. 



444 APPENDIX. 

62 Europe. 

1* Empires. 
2* Kepublics. 
.3* Kingdoms. 
V North America. 
82 United States. 

1* Remark : — For this, Bristol board is used. 
The foregoing rules and remarks are designed to aid those 
who wish a course in map-drawing , where, as we understand it, 
neatness, in general appearance, and accuracy in execution are de- 
sired as well as knowledge of location. We would not have it so, 
but should any one desire the latter only this might seem too tedi- 
ous ; to such we recommend the more expeditious process — sketch- 
ing — which is made comparativelv simple by the use of the par- 
allels and meridians. 



APPENDIX. 445 



SCALE OF CRITICISM. 



CONTRIBUTED BY F. P. ADAMS. 



The following is a scale of criticism for use in Rhetoric and 
Literature Classes of the Central Normal College. The teacher, in 
looking over the essays, notes the mistakes by the use of figures ; 
thus, 1 placed over a word denotes incorrect spelling ; 2, wrong 
use of capital ; 27, obsolete word, etc. 

It is not supposed that every teacher will find use for the entire 
scale; but it may assist some in making out one for themselves. 
Only a few of the points should be used in criticising the essays of 
beginners. 

I. ORTHOGRAPHY, CAPITALS, ETC. 

1. Spelling. 5. Word divided. 

2. Capitals. 6. Paragraphing. 

3. Compound. 7. Penmanship. 

4. Syllable divided. 

II. PUNCTUATION. 

8. For sense. 13. For style of type. 

9. For abbreviation. 14. For divided word. 

10. For possessive. 15. For omission of letters, words, 

11. For quotation. or sentences. 

12. For references. 



III. PURITY. 



The faults against purity are called barbarisms. 

16. Archaisms: selection of obsolete words; as, list, wot, trow. 

17. Alienisms : selection of words not domesticated in general 
use ; as, bizarre. 

18. Provincialisms : selections of words used only in certain lo- 
calities ; as totCf critter J " right smart." 



446 APPENDIX. > 

19. Technicalities : selection of words used only by a particu- 
lar class or profession. 

20. Slang ; as. chuck full, go 24. Hybrid ; as, hemicircle. 

it, cahoot. 25. Faulty formation ; as, reluc- 

21. Newly-coined words; as, tate. 

shootist. 26. Vulgarcontraction; as, i^an'i 

22. Faulty suffix. for haven't. 

23. Faulty prefix. 

rv. PROPRIETY. 

(1) Lexical. 

27. Words in obsolete use ; as, 

" Be buried quick with her." 

28. Words of equivocal meaning ; as, 

" This translation was overlooked by many careful scholars." 

29. Words of provincial meaning ; as, 

^^ Directly the queen came the performances commenced." 

30. Words in mixed imagery; as, 

" Hope, the halm of life, darts a ray through the thickest 
gloom." 

31. Synonym with wrong shade of meaning ; as, 

" Tolerate me to introduce my friend, Mr. Johnson." 

32. Synonym, or other word, inappropriate to style of dis- 
course ; as, 

" The distinguished arbiters met, and after a long chatj 
agreed upon the award." 

33. Wrong signification. 

(2) Grammatical. 

34. Syntax faulty. 

35. Wrong inflection ; as, 

" The clothes was made to order." 
"The boys likes to play marbles." 

36. Wrong element ; as, 

" He spoke firstly of virtue ; second of righteousness." 

37. Double use of an element ; as, 

"These measures we have considered carefully and are now 
presented for your review." 

38. Ellipsis; as, 

" I had three sons all died in a year." 

39. Pleonasm ; as, 

" John, he knows." 



APPENDIX. 447 

40. Tautology; as, 

" He works when he does ivork." 

41. Eedundancy, This is the use of more words than are nec- 
essary. 

V. CONCORD. 

42. Su bject- words ; as, 

" He is the man ivhom they think would make a good leader." 

43. Predicate-words; as, 

" Neither of them are sociable." 

44. Pronouns ; as, 

" Each has their special work." 

45. Appositives ; as, 

"The work was John's — him whom they had already 
cast oflf." 

46. Object-words ; as, 

" Between you and I." 

47. Expression of time ; as, 

" They would join his party if they can" 

VI. ARRANGEMENT. 

48. Principal elements. 54. Phrases. 

49. Adjectives. 55. Parts of complex sentence. 
60. Adverbials. 56. Members of compound sen- 

51. Modals. tence. 

52. Objectives. 57. Promiscuous words. 

53. Pronouns. 

f Vir. PRECISION AND ENERGY. 

58. Ambiguous word or 64. Ellipsis obscure. 

phrase. 65. Clearness. 

59. Equivocal word or 66. Ambiguous antecedent. 

phrase. 67. Infinitive separated from its 

60. Faulty definition. sign. 

61. Deficiency. 68. Splitting a particle. 

62. Strength. 

63. Not specific. 

69. Uncertain relation of a modifying word, phrase or sentence. 

70. Omission or insertion of connective incorrect. 

71. Omission or insertion of the article incorrect. 

72. Bad choice of word or phrase. 

73. Verbosity. 

74. Feeble ending. 



448 



APPENDIX. 



75. Feebleness of expression. 

76. Commonplace. 

77. Lack of symmetry ; as, 

" The trader came to buy stock and /or trading,^* 

78. Anti-climax. 

79. Antithesis faulty. 

80. Negative form of expression. 

VIII. FIGURES. 



81. Mixed imagery. 

82. Inappropriate metaphor, 

83. Trite simile. 

84. Unreasonable figure. 



IX. PROMISCUOUS CRITICISMS. 



85. Abrupt transition. 

86. Euphony. 

87. Harmony. 

88. Elegance. 

89. Naturalness. 

90. Extravagance. 

91. Continuousness. 

92. Unity. 



93. Method. 

94. Selection. 

95. Completeness. 

96. Truthfulness. 

97. Business appearance. 

98. Carelessness. 

99. Promptitude. 
100. Miscellaneous. 



APPENDIX. 449 



GRAMMAR. 



CONTRIBUTED BY F, P. ADAMS. 



ShxiU the parsing lessons be written f - 

On every favorable occasion we declaim against the hum-drum, 
sing-song plan that some teachers follow of having the recitations 
in grammar made up wholly of the repetition of committed rules 
and definitions and declensions and oral parsings. Some of the 
lessons, or even a part of every lesson, may be oral ; but no pupil 
can afford to be without the great advantages that result from 
written lessons. By writing the lessons, (1) the pupils will be 
more likely to prepare the entire work assigned ; (2) they will 
work with greater care ; (3) they will accustom themselves to de- 
finiteness and accuracy of thought ; (4) they will improve in (a) 
reading, (6) writing, (c) spelling, {d) punctuation, [e) capitaliza- 
tion, (/) and the general appearance of their manuscripts. 

We have tried this in croivded district schools, and we feel safe in 
saying that it pays in economy of time, and yields rich results in 
the points spoken of above. 

Infinitives and Participles. 

To master infinitives and participles is considered by many the 
most difficult task connected with grammar. It is perplexing and 
amusing to examine and compare the views of a few diflferent au- 
thors with reference to these difficult parts of speech. We have 
not space to give, at present, the results of such an investigation. 
The best disposition to be made of both infinitives and participles 
is that made by Holbrook, Whitney and Pierce. This disposition 
will be understood by the following rule: "Infinitives and Par- 
ticiples have the constructions of nouns, adjectives and adverbs." 

29 



450 APPENDIX. 



Infinitives : 
1^ Constructions. 
V Of a noun. 

1^ Subject of a verb, 

1* " To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die." 
2' In predicate with a verb, 

1* To die is to shep. 
3^ Object of a verb, 

1* We want to go to school. 
4^ Object of a preposition, 

1* He is about to go. 
5^ In apposition 
1* With a word, 

1* The task to sweep the streets was imposed. 
2* With a phrase, 

1^ To shuffle off this mortal coil, to cease, is not so pleasapt. 
2^ Of an adverb 
1' Modifying 
1* A verb, 

1^ He caine to get grapes. 
2* An adjective, 

1^ Let us be content to ivork. 
3* An adverb, 

1^ He labored enough to deserve it. 
3^ Of an adjective 
1^ Limiting 
1* A noun, 

1^ There is a time to mourn. 
2* A pronoun, 

1^ She appears to be coming. 
We have endeavored in the outline given above, to show that 
every infinitive must have the construction either of an adjective, 
of an adverb, or of a noun. The same position will hold for par- 
ticiples. 

If a participle limits a noun or a pronoun it has the construc- 
tion or nature of an adjective, since that is the office that an ad- 
jective performs. 

If it modifies an adjective, an adverb or a verb, then we say it 
has the construction of an adverb. When the participle is the 
subject of a verb, the object of a transitive verb in the active 



APPENDIX. 451 

voice, the object of a preposition, or in apposition with a noun or 
phrase, then we say it has the construction of a noun. 
The following outline shows this view in condensed form 
Participial constructions : 
1^ Of a noun. 

P Subject of a verb. 
2^ Object of a transitive verb. 
3^ Object of a preposition. 
4'' In apposition. 
1' With a noun. 
2' With a phrase. 
2^ Of an adjective. 
P Limiting. 

V A noun. > 

2' A pronoun. 
2^ In predicate. 

1^ With an intransitive verb. 
2^ With a passive verb. 
3^ Of an adverb, 
1^ Limiting 

1^ A verb. ' 

1* Transitive. 
1^ Active. 
2^ Passive. 
2* Intransitive. 
2^ An adverb. 
3^ An adjective. 

ANALYSIS. 

Sentences : 
1^ Classes. 

I'' As to structure. 
1^ Simple. 
1* Complete — one whose verb is finite. 
2* Abridged — one whose verb is infinite. 
2^ Complex. 
1* Principal. 
2* Subordinate. 
3* Compound. 
1* Members. 

1^ Leading the first member. 

2* Co-ordinate — any other than the first member. 



452 APPENDIX. 

2' As to use. 
1^ Declarative. 
2' Imperative. 
3' Interrogative. 
4^ Exclamatory. 
2^ Elements. 
V Principal. 
1' Subject. 
1* Simple. 
2* Complex. 
3* Compound. 
2' Predicate. 
1* Parts. 
P Copula. 
2^ Attribute. 
2* Kinds. 
1& Simple. 
2* Complex. 
3^ Compound. 
2' Subordinate. 
. 1» Kinds. 

1* As to structure. 
1^ Simple — one whose base is unmodified. 
2^ Complex — one whose base is modified. 
3^ Compound — two or more simple or complex elements 
of equal rank, joined by co-ordinate connectives. 
2* As to relation. 

1^ Adjective— one which modifies a noun or pronoun. 
2^ Adverbial — one which modifies anything but a 
noun or pronoun, and is not the object of a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice. 
3* Objective — the object of a transitive active verb. 
4* Subjective — objective subject of an infinitive. 
3* As to base- 
ly First oJass — one whose base is a single word. 
2^ Second class — one whose base is a preposition and 

its object or an infinitive. 
3* Third class — a complete subordinate sentence. 

GUIDE FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. Read the sentence. 



APPENDIX. 



456 



2. Classify it - 



{Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 



r Declarative, 

[ Exclamatory. 

3. Give the complex subject. 

4. Give the simple subject. 
6. Point out its modifiers. 

{Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 



6. Classify them 



r Adjective, 
:toreIation.U^j;« 

[Subjective. 



{First class, 
Second class, 
Third class. 

7. Give the base of each modifier and classify its modifiers. 

8. Give the complex predicate. 

9. Give the simple predicate. 
10. Point out its modifiers. 



11. Classify them 



structure, 

relation, 

base. 



12. Give the base and classify its modifiers. 

The class should copy this guide, be drilled on it, and then 
recite the following outline, after which it should be written on 
the board. 

faatorank,{PXX'ite. 

{Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 



Kinds of Elements. - 



as to relation, 



Adjective, 
Adverbial, 
Objective, 
Subjective. 



{First class, 
Second class, 
Third class. 



454 



APPENDIX. 



Kinds of Sentences. - 



{Simple, 
Complex, 
Compound. 

r Declarative, 
fls to iisP J Imperative, 
as to use, ^ interrogative, 

t Exclamatory. 



APPENDIX. 455 



OUTLINE ON THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 
TEACHING. 



The following outline on the Objects of the Recitation and 
Qualifications of the Teacher was obtained in the teachers' train- 
ing class, Central Normal College, Danville, Indiana : 

I. OBJECTS OF RECITATION. 

1. Examination of written work prepared by pupils. 

r Topics, 

2. Testing knowledge of pupils by ^'.Tttoranswers, 

t Reviews, etc. 

3. Imparting additional information. 

1. By Illustrations. ' 

2. By Conversation. 

3. By Explanation. 

4. By Demonstration, etc. 

4. Cultivation of — 

1. Accurate and ready expression. 

r Spelling, 

I. In writing, ^S^„„^ 

[ Syntax, etc. 

9 InmiPikin^ f By wearing off embarrassment. 
/• -in speaking, -^ ^^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ without. 

2. Attention. 

1. By reporting what teacher or pupils have explained 

or illustrated. 

2. By mutual criticism. 

1. In walking across the floor. 

2. In rising. 
o i^ J 3. In sitting. 

3. Good manners, ^ j^ standing. 

c T 3 J f To teacher. 

5. Inaddressl^^f^U^^.p^pil^ 



456 APPENDIX. 

f Interest. 

5. Arousing j {;Xpenden"t'^thoug 

I Investigation. 

r Of the timid. 

6. Encouragement I Of the slow. 

[ Of the diligent. 

7. Direction of the pupils' work. 

8. Mastery of self. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 
1^ Physical. 
1^ Good health. 
2'^ Good eyes. 
3^ Good ears. 
4? Good voice. 
5^^ Good looks. 
2^ Intellectual. 
1^ Natural. 

1^ Good common sense. 
1* Adapting one's self to circumstances, both in teaching 

and government. 
2* In familiarity with patrons and pupils. 
3* By not enacting rules which can not be carried into 

execution. 
4* By not under or overtasking the pupils. 
5* By not pandering to prejudice. 
6* By not making a hobby of any single branch, but by 

making a hobby of all. 
7* By not flattering or disparaging. 
8* TeacMng by example as well as by precept. 
2^ Cheerfulness. 
3^ Firmness. 
# Patience. 
5^ Sociability. 

6^ A love for the work and children. 
7^ Power of comparison. 
8^ Aptness to teach. 
2^ Acquired : 

1' Knowledge of human nature. 

2' Knowledge of the common branches. 

3^ Knowledge of sciences. 

4' General knowledge of history. 



I 



APPENDIX. 457 

5' General knowledge of government. 
6^ General knowledge of miscellaneous subjects. 
3* Moral: 

P Honesty — with God and man. 
Temperate in all things. 

PERIODS OF THE MIND's DEVELOPMENT. 

1^ Objective, in which the child is to be taught by means of ob- 
jects. The length of this period depends upon the natural 
ability of the child and the amount and quality of culti- 
vation the mind receives. The question during this period 
is, What? 

2* Transition, during which the change is made gradualty from 
the objective to the subjective. Objects should not be ex- 
cluded during this period. We now have the question, 
Why? 

3^ Subjective, in which the mind can grasp abstract subjects. 
In which it can divide a subject into its parts and study 
them singly. Illustrations from objects not before the eye 
can be used successfully. 

THE PERCEPTIVE, REFLECTIVE AND RETENTIVE FACULTIES DE- 
FINED. 

The perceptives are those faculties with which we observe the 
position, form, size, color, motion, etc., of objects. 

The retentive faculties are those by which we retain the impres- 
sions made upon our minds by the exercise of the perceptives. 

The reflectives are those faculties by the workings of which one 
is able to compare and contrast things which have come through 
the perceptives and retentives. 

TRAINING THE PERCEPTIVE AND RETENTIVE FACULTIES. 

1^ Composition. 

1^ Have pupils write what the teacher does. 
2'"' Narrate what takes place during a recitation. 
3^ Tell about twelve things you saw on the road to school. 
4^ Tell about what happened during holidays or Sunday. 
5^ Listen to a story read and then reproduce it. 
6' Description of some object placed before the pupils. 
V Description of some object previously observed by the 
pupils. 



^^^ APPENDIX. 

TRAINING THE PERCEPTIVE FACULTIES IN GEOGRAPHY. 

1. Develop the ideas of boundary and direction bj arranging 

objects on the table. ^^ ranging 

2. Drill on the direction of objects in the school^room. 
o. Map the school-room. 

4. Map the school grounds. 

5. Map the adjoining farms. 

6. Map the house and yard of your home. 

7. Map the township. 

8. Map the county. 

9. Map the state. 



I 



APPENDIX. 459 



TOPIC LIST FOR THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. 



CONTRIBUTED BY ANNIE M. SHERRILL. 



Write the list on the board, and have each pupil copy it for use 
during the term. In studying the text of the several countries 
assign a certain number of topics to be investigated and reported 
upon at each recitation, instead of assigning the questions in the 
book. 

1. Locality. 

2. Boundaries. 

3. Latitude and Longitude. 

A o f j No. of feet above the sea. 

4. ouriace, \ Mountainous or flat. 

5. Water sheds. 

6. Mountains. 

7. Volcanoes. 

8. Plateaus. 

9. Plains. 

10. Deserts. 

11. Peninsulas. 

12. Isthmuses. 

13. Capes. 

14. Islands. 

15. Oceans. 

16. Seas. 

17. Gulfs. 

18. Bays. 

in 04. •+ /Connect what? 

19. Straits, I g^p^^^^^^l^^t, 

20. Sounds. 

„- ^, , J Connect what? 

21. Channels, | Separate what? 



6U 




APPENDIX. 






Situation. 


22. 


Lakes. 


.«-- {r/ih. 






«'— {ou'tTet. 


23. 


Elvers. 


24. 


Climate. 


25. 


Soil. 


26. 


Productions. 


27. 


Animals. 


28. 


Exports. 


29. 


Imports. 


30. 


Commerce. 


31. 


Area. 


32. 


Population. 


33. 


Nationality. 


34. 


State of Society. 


35, 


Political Divisions. 


36. 


Capitals. 


37. 


Chief Towns. 


38. 


Government. 


39. 


Industries. 


40. 


Religion. 


41. 


Education. 


42. 


Languages. 


43. 


Facilities for traveling. 


44. 


History. 


45. 


Curiosities. 




( Literature. 


46. 


State of advancement, -{ Science. 






I Art. 



THE END, 



3477 5 



